A land of living fossils; Avatar landscapes in the southeast Chinese Mountains; along the Maritime Silk Road

I. Map boundaries

20 to 30 degrees North; 108 to 117 degrees East

II. Countries

China (Anhui, Chongqing Municipality, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Guizhou, Hainan, Hong Kong, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Taiwan (Pratas)) and Vietnam (Quang Ninh).

III. Overview

The limestone pinnacles amid lush evergreen forests of the Guizhou Plateau and the Nan Ling (South Mountains) are one of the inspirations for the floating mountains in the recent movie Avatar. In 1955, during botanical exploration of Guangxi Autonomous Region, botanists discovered a conifer that had some resemblance to both pines and firs. Further examination indicated that fossil pollen from this new species dates back to the Cretaceous era (greater than 65 million years ago). Today the Cathay silver fir is considered a living fossil and is known from nine locations in the mountains of southern China, five of which are within the map area. The other locations are just to the west.

Metasequoia, another living fossil, is also found in the map area. This conifer is related to redwood, and is a common fossil in deposits in the badlands of the Dakotas and on Axel Heiberg Island in the Canadian arctic. It is the state fossil of Oregon. However, the latest known fossil occurrence was during the Miocene (from 5 to 24 million years ago). Living trees were discovered by botanical explorers in 1946 in Lichuan, Hubei, in the northwestern map area, and naturally growing trees are now known from Longshan on the Hubei-Hunan border and Sangzhi, which is to the east of Longshan.

Important fossil animal finds have also been made in the map area. Cretaceous formations near the city of Ganzhou, Jiangxi Province, revealed a dinosaur fossil with two shelled eggs, one in each oviduct. These would have been laid one at a time, similar to birds. The dinosaur genus, Sinosauropteryx, has also been found sitting on ring-shaped clutches that contain at least 15 eggs. Multiple egg-laying episodes would be required to lay an entire clutch (Sato et al. 2005). This is an important piece of evidence of the relationship between birds and dinosaurs.

Just to the northwest, in the Hengyang Basin of Hunan Province, important information on mammal evolution and dispersal has been found in sediments from the Paleocene-Eocene boundary (55 million years ago). Fossils from the modern orders Primates, Artiodactyla, and Perissodactyla first appeared in Asia in these sediments. This is earlier than these orders are known elsewhere, suggesting that Asia was the center of origin for many early mammal groups (Bowen et al. 2002).

In the karst areas along the Guangxi-Guizhou border at the west-central part of the map lies Dongge Cave. Stalagmites have been analyzed for oxygen isotope records, and are able to provide a continuous history of the Asian monsoon over the past 9,000 years. Oxygen isotope values become lower as the summer monsoon intensifies. Among the most abrupt events in the Dongge record is the abrupt lowering of monsoon intensity about 4,400 years ago, which would have caused drying (Wang et al. 2005). This is about the time of the collapse of the Neolithic culture in central China.

Off the coast of the Chuanshan Archipelago, a shipwreck from the Song Dynasty (960 to 1279 CE) was found. In 2005, the ship was salvaged by sealing the ship and all its cargo inside a large container and then raising it. The shipwreck contained a debris trail of green porcelain bowls and other relics at least 800 years old. The vessel is expected to shed light on the Maritime Silk Road, the shipping route between China, India, and the Middle East in medieval times (Jiao 2010). Another Maritime Silk Road wreck is off of Nan’ao Island in eastern Guangdong and is being excavated in place (China Central Television 2011).

The forests of the area are biodiverse and a center of endemism, although few original forests remain and much of the region is human-dominated. The forests are in the transition zone between tropical and temperate climates, and those in the mountains are subject to occasional but rare frosts in winter. A severe winter storm unique in the history of southern China occurred in the winter of 2008, and caused extensive damage in Anhui, Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangxi. Bamboo forests in Jiangxi and the forests of the Nan Ling Nature Reserve in Guangdong were reported to be hard hit (Stone 2008).

Forests in tropical moist regions were not previously believed by ecologists to be a sink for carbon accumulation, but a study of old-growth forests on Mount Dinghu in Guangdong indicates that significant carbon does accumulate in soils under forests (Zhou et al. 2006).

The town of Guiyu in eastern Guangdong is infamous as a site of electronics waste recycling. At one time, as much as 70 percent of the world’s electronics waste was imported into China and much of it ended up in villages in southern China. As a by-product of smelting the waste to obtain gold and other precious metals, lead, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, brominated fire retardants, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers are released. These materials are known to cause poisoning and endocrine disruption (Stone 2009).

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Indo-Malayan Biome

IM 118. Jian Nan subtropical evergreen forests. This ecoregion covers the southern China mountains, an area of luxuriant tropical forests and home of tea, citrus, lychee, and longan fruit. The forest dominants on granitic mountains include representatives from the oak, tea, and laurel families, while limestone forests have oaks, elms, hackberry, dogwood and Sapium. Tertiary relicts are Cathay silver fir, yews, and Liriodendron. Rare monkeys, tragopans, storks, and orioles are present. Found in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Guizhou, Hunan, and Jiangxi.

IM 148, South China Sea Islands. The islands that are high enough support a tropical evergreen forest, although most have more limited vegetation. There is roughly a six-month wet and six-month dry season. Found in Pratas Islands.

IM 149. South China-Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests. Lowland tropical forests on limestone are dominated by plants in the laurel, oak, and mahogany families. Notable animals are hornbills and pangolins. Found in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Hainan, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and Macao Special Administrative Region of China and Quang Ninh province of Vietnam.

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Paleoarctic Biome

PA 101. Guizhou Plateau broadleaf and mixed forests. This cool, cloudy realm of limestone pinnacles is dominated by plants in the oak, laurel, and tea families. Other common plants include hemlock, maple, rhododendron, Prunus, and fir. Animals include macaques, monkeys, tigers, Sika deer, and leopards. Found in Chongqing Municipality, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Guizhou, Hubei, and Hunan on the map.

PA 415. Changjiang Plain evergreen forests. The broad Yangtze or Chang Jiang (Long River) valley downstream of the Three Gorges originally contained native evergreen oak and laurel forests. The Yangtze River dolphin is found in Poyang Lake, along with Chinese alligator. Found in Anhui, Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangxi within the map area.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions

Southern Asia Region, Tropical and Subtropical Coastal Rivers

759. Hainan. Found on the island of Hainan

767. Coastal Fujian-Zeijang. Found from approximately Shanwei northward including the Han River watershed.

Southern Asia Region, Tropical and Subtropical Rivers and Wetland Complexes

763. Xi Yiang. All of Pearl River tributaries including Xi, Bei, and Dong Rivers and coastal rivers east to Shanwei; includes most of the province of Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, and northeast Vietnam on the map.

Southern Asia Region, Temperate Floodplain Rivers and Wetlands

766. Lower Yangtze. Includes Anhui, Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangxi provinces on map.

Southern Asia Region, Temperate Upland Rivers

765. Middle Yangtze. Includes Chongqing Municipality, Guizhou, and western Hubei provinces on map.

VI. Marine Ecoregions of the World

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, South China Sea Province

112. Gulf of Tonkin. Found on continental shelf in northwest area of map.

114. South China Sea Oceanic Islands. Found around Pratas Island.

VII. World Heritage Sites

China Danxia, Guangdong, Hunan, and Jiangxi. This group of geological world heritage sites includes six areas of red bed standstone landforms with dramatic pillars and towers, covered in evergreen forests. Three areas are within the map boundaries: Danxia Mountain, in northern Guangdong; Lang Mountain, in southwest Hunan; and Longhu Mountain, in northeastern Jiangxi. Ecoregion IM 118.

Kaiping, Guangdong. The Diaolou defensive towers have been constructed in Kaiping since Ming times (1368 to 1644) in response to local banditry. This site commemorates local tower-building traditions. Ecoregion IM 149.

Lu Mountain National Park, Jiangxi. Mount Lu is the spiritual center of Chinese civilization, a cultural landscape with striking scenic beauty. There are 200 historic buildings. Ecoregion PA 415.

Macao Special Administrative Region, Historic Center. The strategic location of Macao and the special relationship between China and Portugal for more than 400 years are commemorated in this area. Ecoregion IM 149.

South China Karst, Chongqing and Guizhou. This geological world heritage site consists of eight sites; three are within the map area. The Libo karst-Dongduo area (part of the Malao Biosphere Reserve) is cone and tower karst while the Wulong-Qingkou and Wulong-Furong Cave karsts are noted for sinkholes, natural bridges, and caves. Ecoregions IM 118 and PA 101.

Wulingyuan Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area, Hunan. Includes Zangjiajie National Forest Park. This area of dramatic geologic features contains 3,000 sandstone pillars and peaks, ravines and gorges, waterfalls, caves, and two natural bridges. The Bridge of the Immortals is 357 m above the valley floor and is believed to be the highest natural bridge in the world. The 3,000 plant species are found in evergreen broadleaf forests (below 700 m), mixed evergreen and deciduous forest (700 to 950 m), and deciduous forest (above 950 m). Animals include Chinese giant salamander, Asiatic wild dog, and clouded leopard. An Important Bird Area for pheasants and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. The mountains were one of the inspirations for the floating peaks of the movie Avatar , along with Yellow Mountain in Anhui and the Venezuelan tupuys (Chen 2010; Avatar Blog 2010). Ecoregion PA101.

VIII. Ramsar Sites

Ramsar sites are designated under the UN Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Treaty).

Dongting Lake, Hunan. Three wetland and waterfowl reserves (East, South, and West Dongting Lake) are listed as Ramsar Sites. The lake harbors a finless porpoise. An Important Bird Area with wetlands used by two million migratory birds including Oriental stork, Siberian crane, great bustard. The Chinese sturgeon is also found in the lake. Ecoregion PA415.

Dongzhaigang Nature Reserve, Hainan. This mangrove protected area also has mudflats used by migratory waterfowl. Important Bird Area for black-faced spoonbill, Saunder’s gull, and eastern imperial eagle. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 112.

Huidong Harbor Sea Turtle National Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Sandy beaches used by nesting green sea turtles. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Mai Po Marshes and Inner Deep Bay, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. A shallow bay harboring 13 threatened birds including Christmas Island frigatebird, Siberian crane, oriental stork, black-based spoonbill, and Nordmann’s greenshank. An Important Bird Area hosting 88,000 waterfowl in winter. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Poyung Lake Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. The largest freshwater lake in China and a world-famous Important Bird Area used by 100,000 waterfowl and Siberian white cranes. Waterbirds include cranes, storks, swans, and ducks. Ecoregion PA 415.

Shankou Mangrove National Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. A protected mangrove forest with dugong and Chinese dolphin. Also a Man and the Biosphere Reserve and Important Bird Area for black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 112.

Zhanjiang Mangrove National Nature Reserve, Guangdong. A protected mangrove forest with mudflats for migratory waterfowl. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 112.

IX. Biosphere Reserves

The world network of biosphere reserves are designated under the Man and the Biosphere Program of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

Chebaling National Nature Reserve, Guangdong. This reserve focuses on the management of evergreen broadleaf forest by Yao and Han villages. Ecoregion IM 118.

Dinghu Mountain, Guangdong. Known as the green gem of the Tropic of Cancer, this major Buddhist center has rare primary forests that are 400 years old and numerous waterfalls. An Important Bird Area. See the discussion above in the Overview section about carbon accumulation in old-growth forests. Ecoregion IM 118 and IM 149.

Fanjing Mountain Nature Reserve, Guizhou. Evergreen broadleaf forests dominated by chinquapin, tanbark oak, oaks, beeches, and maples are noted for endemic golden monkey and Guizhou snub-nosed monkey. Forests on Fanjing are a mixture of hardwoods and conifers with hemlock, mapls, Rhododendron, Prunus, and fir. The area is also a sacred Buddhist site. Ecoregion IM 118 and PA 101.

Maolan Biosphere Reserve, Guizhou. See description under South China Karst World Heritage Site above.

Shankou Biosphere Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. See description under Ramsar sites above.

X. Other Points of Interest

Babao Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for gold-fronted fulvetta, Cabot’s tragopan, fairy pitta, silver oriole, and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Badagong Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area for pheasants and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion PA 101.

Bamian Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. One of the known locations of Cathay silver fir; and an Important Bird Area for tragopan, pheasant, and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Chauanshan Archipelago, Guangdong. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113. See archaeological discussion in overview section above.

Chebaling, Guangdong. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron, white-necklaced pheasant, Cabot’s tragopan, and fairy pitta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Chengjia Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for gold-fronted fulvetta and tragopan. Ecoregion IM 118.

Daming Mountain, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for white-eared night heron and silver oriole. Ecoregions IM 118 and IM 149.

Daping Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for white-necklaced partridge and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregions IM 118 and IM 149.

Dawei Mountain, Hunan. An Important Bird Area for pheasants and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregions IM118 and PA 415.

Dayao Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. One of the known locations of the Cathay silver fir, a living fossil, and an Important Bird Area for white-eared night heron, white-necklaced partridge, Pitta, and gold-fronted fulvetta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Dupangling Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area for tragopoan and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Fancheng Coast, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area harboring black-faced spoonbill. Terrestrial Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 112.

Fanjing Mountain Nature Reserve, Guizhou. One of the known locations of Cathay silver fir, a living fossil, and an Important Bird Area for pheasants. Ecoregion IM 118.

Futian Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area with pelicans, egrets, Saunder’s gull. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Gongping Reservoir, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for pelicans and black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion IM 149.

Guan Mountain Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. Important Bird Area with pheasants and pittas. Ecoregion PA 415.

Guiyu, Guangdong. Site of electronics waste importation and materials recycling. See discussion above in Overview. Ecoregion IM 149.

Gupo Mountain, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for white-necklaced partridge and tragopan. Ecoregion IM 118.

Guxiu Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Hailing Island, Guangdong. Site of the Maritime Silk Road Museum, which opened in 2009 and houses the ongoing excavation of South China Sea No 1, a shipwreck found in the Chaunshan Archipelago. Ecoregion IM 149.

Haiyang Mountain Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with Tragopan and Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Heng Mountain, Hunan. One of five sacred mountains of Taoism and the largest group of ancient buildings in China. Ecoregion PA 415.

Hong Lake, Hubei. Important Bird Area with wetlands harbors oriental white stork. Ecoregion PA 415.

Huangsang Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with tragopan, pheasant and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM118.

Huashui Mountain, Guangdong. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron. Ecoregion IM 118.

Huashuichong Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with tragopan and white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Huping Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with pheasants, brown-chested jungle flycatcher, and silver oriole. Ecoregion PA 101.

Jiangkou Niaozhou Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with wetland habitat for oriental white stork, swan goose, and Baikal teal. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiangkou Xiang-Mashi Zhen, Guangdong. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiaqiaoling Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with tragopan and Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jinggang Mountains Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. Important Bird Area with tragopans and pheasants. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiugong Mountain Nature Reserve, Hubei. Important Bird Area with pheasants, Ecoregion PA415.

Jiulian Mountains Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiuwan Mountain Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge and Pitta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiuyi Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with tragopan and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Lagou Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Leigong Mountain Nature Reserve, Guizhou. Important Bird Area for pheasants. Ecoregion PA 101.

Li River, Guangxi Autonomous Region. China’s most famous scenic river through a karst landscape of isolated towers. Ecoregion IM 118.

Ling Canal, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Built in 217 BC, the canal connects north and south China because it connects the Gui/Li River system with the Xiang River which flows north to the Yangtze. Ecoregion IM 118.

Longgan Lake, Hubei. Important Bird Area with wetlands harboring oriental white stork and pittas. Ecoregion PA 415.

Mang Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with tragoppan and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Mao’er Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with Tragopan and Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Maozi Feng, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for silver oriole and white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Meihua (Plum Blossom) Mountain Nature Reserve, Fujian. Important Bird Area with greater spotted eagle, white-necklaced partridge, tragopans and pheasants. Site of the Chinese Tiger Rewilding and Reintroduction Center. Although the South China Tiger subspecies is likely extinct in the wild, there are efforts to breed and reintroduce tigers (Morell 2007). Ecoregion IM118.

Nan Ling (South Mountains) National Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area. Ecoregion IM 118.

Nan’ao Island, Guangdong. Site of a known Maritime Silk Road shipwreck. See the discussion above in the Overview section. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Nankun Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for white-necklaced partridge, Cabot’s tragopan, and fairy pitta. Ecoregion IM 118 and IM 149.

Nanliu River Estuary, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for Chinese egret, Baikal teal, and Saunder’s gull. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion xx.

Nanyue Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion PA 415.

Pingnan Dapeng, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron and Pitta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Pratas Island (Dongsha), Taiwan. This uninhabited coral atoll in the South China Sea is administered by Taiwan. Ecoregion IM 149.

Rong River Estuary, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Sansuo Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Sijian Mountain Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Taipa-Coloane Wetland, Macao Special Administrative Region. Important Bird Area for black-faced spoonbill. Area not labeled on map. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Taohongling Sika Deer Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. Important Bird Area with yellow bunting. Ecoregion PA 415.

Tao Po Kau, Shing Mun, and Tai Mo Mountain, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Important Bird Area for fairy pitta and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 149.

Taoyuandong Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with pheasant and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Tian’ezhou, Hubei. Important Bird Area with wetlands. Ecoregion PA 415.

Tianmen Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with tragopan and pheasant. Ecoregion PA101.

Tianping Mountain (Huaping Mountain Nature Reserve), Guangxi Autonomous Region. One of the known locations of Cathay silver fir, a living fossil; and an Important Bird Area with tragopan, Elliot’s pheasant, and gold-fronted fulveta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Weizhou Island, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for Chinese egret and fairy pitta. Ecoregion IM 149.

Xiaoxi Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion PA 101.

Xianhu Reservoir, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron. Ecoregions IM 118 and IM 149.

Xieyang Island, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with fairy pitta. Ecoregion IM 149.

Xijin Reservoir, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for waterbirds such as grebes and coots. Ecoregion IM 149.

Xiqiao Mountain, Guangdong. A massive Buddha is reached by a one-hour hike. Ecoregion IM 149.

Xunle Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Yindian Mountain and Xiling Mountain Ranges, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Areas for tragopan and Pitta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Yuanbao Mountain-Gunbei Laos Mountain., Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Yun Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with pheasants and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM118.

Ziyun Wafeng Mountains Nature Reserve, Hunan. One of the known locations of Cathay silver fir, and an Important Bird Area with tragopan. Ecoregion IM 118.

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