Great Basin, Sierra Nevada and Wasatch Plateaus, Part I

Fire and ice: The nation’s youngest mountains, oldest trees, and southernmost glacier

I.  Focus Area Boundaries: 35 to 40 degrees North; 110 to 120 degrees West

II.  Country (State): United States (California, Nevada, Utah).

III.  Overview

The Great Basin is the area between the Sierra Nevada and the Wasatch Plateau of Utah. The desert with sky islands of mountain forests contains some of the most remote areas left in the United States, and large wilderness areas have been designated in the Sierra Nevada of California and eastern Nevada. The continuous string of wilderness areas means there is no road crossing the Sierra Nevada from Tioga Pass in Yosemite National Park to Walker Pass, south of Sequoia National Forest, a distance of more than 150 miles.

The Tallest Mountains

A good introduction to the landscapes of this area, and the themes of fire and ice, can be had by studying a map of the Inyo National Forest, which encompasses the eastern Sierra, Owens Valley, and White Mountains from Mono Lake south to the 36^th parallel. To the west, the forest borders the spine of the Sierra Nevada, a line of high elevation peaks and ridges that rarely falls below 9,000 feet in elevation and contains several ridgelines of peaks exceeding 12,000 feet. The tallest peak in California, Mount Whitney, is on the border between the Inyo and Sequoia National Park, and the shortest access to the peak is through the national forest from the Owens Valley side. On the other side of the valley, to the east of Mono Lake, is Nevada’s highest point, in Boundary Peak Wilderness, on the northern end of the White Mountains.

The Southernmost Glacier

Just to the west of Mount Whitney, in Sequoia National Park and Golden Trout Wilderness, is the north-south trending Kern River, part of the wild and scenic river system and the longest continuous glacier-carved valley in North America. Other glacially carved terrain is evident in eastern Sierra canyons leading down to the Owens Valley, and of course, the most famous glacially carved valley is just to the west at Yosemite. To the north, west of Bishop, is Palisades Glacier, the southernmost glacier in North America, at 37 degrees latitude. Palisades Glacier is in the Inyo National Forest on the border with Kings Canyon National Park.

The Youngest Mountains

Further to the north, also in the Inyo, is the newest mountain range in the US, the Mono-Inyo Craters. Located just to the south of Mono Lake, at least ten eruptions took place within the last 1,500 years, including explosions and dome formation (Savage and Clark 1982); the area is still volcanically active. There are carbon dioxide releases which kill trees; the air around the trees contains as much as 60 percent carbon dioxide (Holden 1995) and earthquakes of magnitude 6 have occurred. The earthquakes are associated with a dome which is filling with magma and causing the ground to rise (Savage and Clark 1982). However, the magma activity does not necessarily mean that an eruption is eminent, based on experience with similar calderas elsewhere (Kerr 1983, Kerr 1984). Between 1720 and 1850, an eruption formed Paoha Island in Mono Lake. These volcanoes are just to the north of the Long Valley Caldera, which erupted 700,000 years ago in an immense explosion of pumice and ash that was deposited as far east as Nebraska. Volcanic features are also evident at other sites across the Great Basin of Nevada, including the Ubehebe Crater in Death Valley National Park, Timber Mountain Caldera (not publicly accessible) near the more well-known Yucca Mountain, and Lunar Crater, one of 20 volcanoes in the Pancake Range. Unique columnar basalt is found at Devils Postpile National Monument and the Columns of the Giants in the Stanislaus National Forest.

Ancient Waters

In the deep valleys to the east of the Sierra Nevada are Mono Lake and the Owens River valley, which provide habitat for millions of waterbirds and are recognized as part of the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network or as Important Bird Areas. Notable sites are Mono Lake and and the Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge complex (Lake Lahontan). Rich wetland flora and rare fish are also found in isolated wetlands such as the Fish Slough Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC), Deep Springs Marsh, Railroad Valley, and the Kirch Wildlife Management Area. These waters are remnants of large ice-age lakes that once occupied the Great Basin.

The Oldest Trees

The bristlecone pine is an iconic tree of the Great Basin, found at timberline across the mountaintops of the Nevada mountain ranges. These trees are very old, with one 3,100-year-old tree known from the Schell Creek Range and a 4,900-year-old-tree known from the Snake Range.  The Snake Range tree was cut down, which leaves the White Mountains of the Inyo National Forest in California with the oldest known living bristlecone pines.  In the White Mountains, tree ages exceed 4,000 years. Using living trees and standing or fallen snags, a continuous time series of tree rings extending back 8,000 years has been assembled. The bristlecone survives in an arid climate (12 inches per year of moisture) with a two-month growing season. Isotope studies of the tree tissue provides verification of past global climate changes such as the climatic optimum about 7,000 years BP, a cooling from 1300 BCE to 200 BCE, a warming from 1000 to 1200 CE, and the Little Ice Age from 1700 to 1900 CE (Feng and Epstein 1994, LaMarche 1974, Ferguson 1968). The Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest in the Inyo National Forest preserves these trees, which can be viewed from the Mathuselah National Recreation Trail.

The Largest Trees

To go with the oldest living trees, the area also has the largest living trees, preserved in Yosemite NP, Sierra National Forest, Kings Canyon NP, Sequoia NP, Mountain Home State Forest, and Giant Sequoia National Monument. The range also extends a short distance to the north outside of the map area. These are the giant sequoias, which grow at 6,000 to 7,000 feet elevation on the west side of the Sierra Nevada in 75 disjunct groves. Growing together with the sequoias are firs, pines, and cedars. Sequoia tree rings have been used to study fire frequencies in the Sierra, and to correlate them with El Nino and La Nina climatic events. During dry years large fires burned throughout the region, and fire events often affected many groves in the same year. Fire records back to 1125 BCE can be analyzed. Fire frequencies were lowest from 500 to 800 CE, and highest from 1000 to 1300 CE. Fire occurrence greatly decreased since settlement in the 1860s, leading to current concerns about fuel accumulation (Swetnam 1993).

The distinctive vegetation types of the Great Basin are sagebrush in the lower elevations and pinyon-juniper at higher elevations. At higher elevations, pinyon-juniper transitions to montane coniferous forests, including ponderosa pine and fir. For this reason, the adjoining mountains, the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch, have also been included in the discussion. Over the last 150 years, the area of pinyon-juniper has been increasing and the forests have been getting more dense. In fact, pinyon-juniper covers more than two times the area it was at the time of settlement. Miller and Wigand (1994) attribute this to fire suppression and perhaps increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which increases plant growth. Previously, it is thought, fire kept trees at low density and on rocky sites.

IV.  Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Neararctic Biome

Temperate Coniferous Forests

NA515, Great Basin montane forests. At high elevations, forests of white fir, limber pine, and bristlecone pine are found at timberline. Found in California and Nevada.

NA527, Sierra Nevada forests. The most diverse temperate coniferous forests on Earth support numerous species of pine and 75 giant sequoia groves. Found in California and Nevada.

NA530, Wasatch and Uinta montane forests.  Ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, and Gambel oak are found in sparse, arid forests on Utah mountaintops. The southernmost extensions of this area shown on the map tend to be high plateaus. Found in Utah.

Deserts & Xeric Shrublands

NA1305, Great Basin shrub steppe. Characterized by sagebrush, saltbush and winterfat. Called a shrub steppe because of the absence of grasses. Found in California, Nevada, and Utah.

V.  Freshwater Ecoregions

Temperate Coastal Rivers

125, Sacramento-San Joaquin. One of the richest ecoregions west of the rockies for fish, with 40 natives. It is the southernmost area for five anadromous fish and has five endemic fish genera, as well as a near-endemic salamander. This includes the western-draining portions of the Sierra Nevada in the focus area, including Stanislaus, Tuolumne, Merced, Kings, and Kern Rivers.

Xeric Freshwaters and Closed Basins

126, Lahontan, includes Mono, Pyramid, Tahoe, and Walker Lakes and the Carson, Truckee and Walker River watersheds on the map area. The freshwater ecoregion extends eastward in Nevada to the Great Basin NP and Desert NWR. Railroad Valley is known for endemic fish, which live in its large spring pools. The Railroad Valley springfish, desert dace, and five snails are endemic.

127, Bonneville, includes the western slopes of the Wasatch Plateau and extreme eastern Nevada east of Great Basin National Park. The major river draining the plateau is the Sevier River.

128, Death Valley includes the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada south of Mono Lake, including the Owens River Valley. There are five endemic fish, 20 endemic mollusks and five endemic aquatic insects.

129, Vegas-Virgin, includes the watersheds of the Meadow Valley Wash, Pahranagat Wash, Virgin River, and White River, all in the Las Vegas area and northward in Arizona, Nevada and Utah. Endemic species are three species of spinedace, Virgin River chub, and Moapa speckled dace.

130, Colorado, encompasses the eastward-draining streams from the Wasatch Plateau; these drainages are in the Fishlake and Manti-LaSal National Forests.

VI.  World Heritage Sites

Yosemite National Park, California (site 1). The glacial erosion of granite has resulted in the distinctive landscape of hanging valleys, waterfalls, cirque lakes, polished domes, moraines, and U-shaped valleys. Major park areas are the Yosemite Valley, Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne River, which is in a roadless area between Tuolumne Meadows and Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, Tuolumne Grove, Mariposas Grove, Wawona Dome and Chilnualna Fall, and Glacier Point. The high meadows between 4500 and 7000 feet are part of the Sierra Meadows South important bird area (IBA). One of the few trans-mountain roads in the southern Sierra Nevada is the Tioga Road, which passes through Tuolumne Meadows. The Sierra Nevada Research Station of the University California Natural Reserve System is located in Wawona along the South Fork of the Merced River. Ecoregion NA527.

VII.  Man and the Biosphere Reserves

Desert Experimental Range, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Utah (site 2). A center for cold desert research, located in Utah’s Pine Valley. Research focuses on livestock and invasive weed effects on desert ecosystems. Ecoregion NA1305.

Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, California (site 3). A land of 14,000-foot mountains and giant trees, there are five areas accessible by road. The lower elevation foothills is an area of oak woodlands and chaparral. The Giant Forest area contains 40 miles of trails through sequoia groves and includes the Congress National Recreation Trail. The Giant Forest area contains the General Sherman Tree. Crescent Meadow is known for corn lilies and is the beginning of the High Sierra Trail. Moro Rock is a granite dome that overlooks sequoia groves. Cedar Grove is the glaciated valley of the Kings River. Mineral King is a subalpine forested valley. Much of the eastern portion of Sequoia National Park and all of Kings Canyon NP outside of Cedar Grove are roadless. Cedar Grove is in a glaciated valley along the Kings River. The high alpine meadows of the two parks are part of the Sierra Meadows South IBA and are habitat for great gray owl, blue grouse, pileated woodpecker, and Vaux’s swift. The part also includes Crystal Cave National Recreation Trail. Ecoregion NA527.

Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest, Stanislaus National Forest, California (site 4). Located at Pinecrest, California, on Route 108, this research forest is composed of sugar pine and mixed conifer forests. Ecoregion NA527.

VIII.  Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network

Lahontan Valley Wetlands, Nevada (site 5). This area, also an IBA, contains alkaline marshes that support 250,000 shorebirds, including 150,000 long-billed dowagers, as well as numerous other waterfowl and shorebirds. Other shorebirds are black-necked stilt and American avocet. The site is made up of Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge, Stillwater Wildlife Management Area (Bureau of Reclamation), and Carson Lake and Pasture State Wildlife Refuge. Ecoregion NA1305.

Mono Basin National Forest Scenic Area and Mono Lake Tufa State Natural Area, California (site 6). Known for its tufa towers of evaporated salt, the area includes Mono Lake and volcanic islands, along with Panum Crater and the Mono Craters. The lake is too salty to support fish but provides habitat for brine shrimp and flies, which in turn support up to one million waterbirds, including 15 per cent of the population of Wilson’s phalarope and the second largest gull colony in the world (California gulls). Mono Lake and are an IBA for gulls, terns, plovers, and phalaropes. Mono Craters are a ten-mile long chain of volcanoes that erupted between 35,000 and 600 years ago. Paoha Island and Negit Island in Mono Lake are lava domes that were formed between 1720 and 1850, making them among the youngest volcanoes in North America. Ecoregion NA1305.

IX.  National Forest (NF) System

Ashley NF, Utah (site 7). The unit of the forest shown in this map area rises sharply above the Bad Land Cliffs and Nine Mile Canyon. Ecoregion NA530.

Desert Experimental Range, Utah (site 2). See description under Biosphere Reserves.

Dixie NF, Utah (site 8). The westernmost area, bordering Nevada, contains the Pine Valley Mountains, which rise sharply from the desert floor. The trail to the top of Signal Peak in the Pine Valley Mountains is Whipple NRT. The Markagunt Plateau unit features Navajo Lake, which was dammed by a lava flow. Water drains out of the lake on a red limestone cliff, forming a waterfall. The trail to the waterfall is Cascade Falls NRT. The 11,000-foot western edge of the plateau is called Bryan Head Peak. This area is becoming known as a mountain biking area. The unit to the east features Red Canyon and its hoodoos, while further to the east is Hell’s Backbone and the Aquarius Plateau. Wilderness areas include Ashdown Gorge, Box-Death Hollow, Cottonwood Forest, Pine Valley Mountain, Ecoregions NA530, NA1304, NA1305.

Eldorado NF, California. The map area includes a small area of this NF around Carson Pass and Mokelumne Wilderness just south of Lake Tahoe. Ecoregion NA527.

Fishlake NF, Utah (site 9). At Fish Lake in the eastern unit, the outline on the map suggests a fish. The Lakeshore NRT follows the shore of Fish Lake. The lake was dammed by a glacier and is lined with aspens. In the western unit is the Tushar Range, a high-altitude area where eight peaks exceed 10,000 feet in elevation. The Skyline NRT follows the crest of the Tushar Range. Ecoregions NA530, NA1304, NA1305.

Giant Sequoia National Monument, California (site 10). There are 33 groves of giant sequoias in this two-unit area to the south and north of Sequoia National Park. This is half of all the known groves. This area of the southern Sierra Nevada has granite monoliths, glacier-carved canyons, limestone caverns, and whitewater rivers. The Boole tree is the largest tree on national forest system land, while the nearby Chicago Stump, cut in 1893, may have been the largest tree ever grown. The southernmost grove is east of California Hot Springs. The Kings Canyon Scenic Byway first climbs 4,000 feet to reach the Grant Grove of sequoias, then descends 2,700 feet into Kings Canyon and passes Boyden Cave and a waterfall. The Jennie Lakes and Monarch Wildernesses are in the monument. Ecoregion NA527.

Great Basin Experimental Range and Great Basin Environmental Education Center, Manti-La Sal NF, Utah (site 11). Located on the western face of the Wasatch Plateau, research focuses on the ecology and management of mountain watersheds and ranges. Vegetation is oak brush and pinyon-juniper. Snow College manages the environmental education center at 8,900 feet elevation in a spruce-aspen forest. Ecoregion NA530.

Humboldt NF, Nevada (site 12). There are six units shown on the map area. The Table in the Mount Moriah unit adjacent to the Utah border is a one-square mile, 11,000-foot plateau with a stand of bristlecone pine. The forest also surrounds Great Basin National Park in the Wheeler Peak area. Wilderness areas in the map area include Bald Mountain, Bristlecone, Currant Mountain, Grant Range, High Schells, Mount Moriah, Quinn Canyon, Red Mountain, Schellback, and White Pine Range. Ecoregions NA515, NA1305.

Inyo NF, California and Nevada (site 13). This 1.9-million-acre forest is on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada, adjoining Yosemite National Park, Kings Canyon National Park, and Sequoia National Park. Includes Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest, home to the oldest living trees on Earth; Big Pine Canyon, a dramatic glacier carved canyon with Palisades Glacier, the southernmost in the US; Bishop Pass and Treasure Lakes, California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area, Grays Meadow, June Lake, Kern Wild and Scenic River, Mammoth Lakes, Mono Basin National Scenic Area (see description under WHSRN), Reds Meadow and Devils Postpile, Rock Creek, a glacier-carved valley with 50 lakes, and Whitney Portal. The Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest contains the Schulman Grove and Patriarch Grove if these timberline trees, which are the oldest living things on the planet, at 4,700 years. The Long Valley Caldera was the site of a giant eruption 760,000 years ago; ash from the eruption is found as far east as Nebraska. Eruptions at Obsidian Dome, South Deadman Doe, and Panum Crater were 500 to 800 years ago, creating the youngest mountain range in North America. The area is volcanically active; trees on Horseshoe Lake and Mammoth Mountain were recently killed by high carbon dioxide levels, and Hot Creek Geological Site has geysers and mudpots. Glass Mountain, southeast of Mono Lake, is part of the Mono Hills IBA, and is noted for long-eared owl and northern harrier. Adobe Valley, also southeast of Mono Lake, is a spring-fed valley and IBA for snowy plover, shorebirds, and greater sage grouse. The Valentine Eastern Sierra Reserve of the UC Natural Reserve System is located in Mammoth Lakes. Ansel Adams Wilderness, Boundary Peak Wilderness, Golden Trout Wilderness, Hoover Wilderness, Inyo Mountains Wilderness, John Muir Wilderness, South Sierra Wilderness, and White Mountain Wilderness are included in its boundaries.

Kings River Experimental Watershed, High Sierra Ranger District, Sierra National Forest, California (Site 14). East of Shavers Lake is a research site for forest management in the semi-arid, patchy southern Sierra Nevada landscape. Ecoregion NA527.

Kings River Special Management Area, Sequoia and Sierra National Forests, California (site 15). This area designated by Congress includes the Kings River upstream from Pine Flat Lake, the Middle Fork Kings River, and South Fork Kings River. There is a wild trout fishery in the Kings River, Garlic Falls, and the Boole giant sequoia tree in the area. The area also includes the Kings River National Recreation Trail. Ecoregion NA527.

Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit, California (site 16). Lake Tahoe is encircled by the 165-mile long Tahoe Rim National Recreation Trail. The Carson Range on the east side of Lake Tahoe is an IBA. The area includes Mount Rose Wilderness in the map area. Ecoregion NA527.

Manti-LaSal NF, Utah (site 17). Skyline Drive follows the high, cool Uinta Mountain range for more than 70 miles. The Grove of the Giant Aspens, with trunk diameters up to 38 inches, is also found here. Also see Great Basin Experimental Range. The Left Fork Huntington Canyon and Fish Creek NRTs are within the forest. Wilderness areas include Dark Canyon. Ecoregions NA530, NA1304, NA1305.

Mono Basin National Forest Scenic Area, California (site 6). See description under Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Ecoregion NA1305.

Sequoia NF, California (site 18). Includes the southernmost Sierra Nevada mountains where they grade into the Tehachapi Mountains. The forest includes the Giant Sequoia NM and Golden Trout, Domeland, Jennie Lake, Kiavah, Monarch, and South Sierra wildernesses (see in part 2). The Kern Plateau is a high-elevation area, while the Upper Kern River above Lake Isabella and the Lower Kern below Lake Isabella are whitewater recreational rivers. National Recreation Trails include Cannell Meadows, Jackass Creek, and Summit. Ecoregions NA527, 1202, and 1203.

Sierra NF, California (site 19). The granite monoliths of the Sierra Nevada are found in this forest which bridges the gap between Kings Canyon NP and Yosemite NP. Vegetation ranges from grasslands to subalpine meadows. Giant sequoia groves are found at Nelder and Dinkey Creek. The Sierra Vista National Scenic Byway traverses geologic and scenic sites, as well as the Nelder sequoia grove and Shadow of the Giants National Recreation Trail. The Sierra Heritage Scenic Byway is Route 168 which ends at Kaiser Pass. Recreation lakes include Huntington and Shaver, which are hydroelectric developments. Near Huntington Lake is Black Point National Recreation Trail and Rancheria Falls NRT. Wilderness areas include Ansel Adams, Dinkey Lakes, John Muir, Monarch, and Kaiser. Ecoregion NA527.

Spring Mountains National Recreation Area, Toiyabe National Forest, Nevada (site 20). Charleston Peak hosts a large ancient bristlecone pine forest and provides scenic views of the surrounding desert. It is reached by the eight-mile Mount Charleston NRT. This most biologically diverse mountain range in Nevada is an IBA for flammulated owl. Wilderness areas are La Madre Mountain, Mount Charleston and Rainbow Mountain. Ecoregions NA515 and NA1305.

Stanislaus NF, California (site 21). Three highway corridors cross the Sierra range and define forest access areas. Routes 4 and 108 are included in the map area. Columns of the Giants trail and Pinecrest Lake trail are NRTs in the Route 108 corridor. Wilderness areas are Carson-Iceberg, Emigrant, and Mokelumne. Ecoregions NA527 and NA1202.

Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest, California. See description under Biosphere Reserves.

Teakettle Experimental Forest, Sierra NF, California (site 15). This is a watershed management research area. Ecoregion NA527.

Toiyabe NF, California and Nevada (site 22). The forest includes the eastern front of the Sierra Nevada as well as ranges in the Nevada Great Basin desert area. Alkali Valley, between Walker and Mono Lakes, has the most alkaline soil known. Leavitt Meadows is part of the Sierra Meadows North IBA. The Toiyabe Crest NRT follows the Toiyabe Mountains to Arc Dome, while the Mount Charleston NRT provides views of Las Vegas from a bristlecone pine forest. The Toquima and Monitor Range areas are part of the Monitor Valley IBA for sage grouse. The Wellington-Pine Grove Hills in Nevada north of Bodie in California are an IBA for the greater sage grouse. Wilderness areas are Alta Toquima, Arc Dome, Carson-Iceberg, Hoover, La Madre Mountain, Mokelumne, Mount Charleston, Mount Rose, Rainbow Mountain, and Table Mountain. The Arc Dome Wilderness is part of the Toiyabe Range IBA. Ecoregions NA515, NA527, NA1305.

Uinta NF, Utah (site 93). Mount Nebo, Devils Kitchen, and Payson Canyon are found in the forest in the map area. Ecoregions NA530 and NA1305.

Wasatch NF, Utah (site 23). Includes the Sheeprock Mountains within the focus area. Ecoregion NA1305.

X.  National Natural Landmarks (NNLs)

Berlin-Icthyosaur State Park, Nevada (site 24). Fossil remains of 37 different types of ichthyosaur, some up to 45 feet in length, are found here. Ecoregion NA1305.

Deep Springs Marsh, California (site 25). This privately held area (Deep Springs College) is next to Piper Mountain Wilderness and Inyo National Forest provides riparian habitat and alkali meadow at Deep Springs Lake. The endemic black toad is found here. It is an IBA for songbird migrations, especially for warblers and vireos. Ecoregion NA1305.

Eureka Dunes, Death Valley National Park, California (site 26). These 700-foot tall dunes, highest in the Great Basin, are isolated from other dune fields to the south in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. An endangered grass genus is found here. Ecoregion NA1305.

Fish Slough Area of Critical Environmental Concern, BLM Bishop District, California (site 27). Geographic isolation, geology, climate and hydrology have created a rare ecosystem with the richest wetland flora in the Great Basin. Habitat for the Owens pupfish is found here. Ecoregion NA1305.

Hot Creek Refugium, Wayne E. Kirch Wildlife Management Area, Nevada (site 28). Critical habitat for the Moorman White River springfish. The WMA provides five reservoirs for waterfowl. Ecoregion NA1305.

Lunar Crater, BLM Tonopah Field Office, Nevada (site 29). A 400-acre depression formed by volcanic activity, part of a large volcanic area of 20 volcanoes at the southern edge of the Pancake Range. Cinder cones, lava, and ash hills can also be seen. The access road is designated Lunar Crater National Back Country Byway. Ecoregion NA515 and NA1305.

Timber Mountain Caldera, Nevada National Security Site (DOE), Nevada (site 30). An extensive field 25-km across that erupted 12 million to 10,000 years ago. Ecoregions NA1305 and NA1308.

XI.  National Park (NP) System

Cedar Breaks National Monument, Utah (site 31). Trails at the 10,000-foot elevation parkland lead to overlooks of precipitous dropoffs of colorful cliffs and pinnacles west to the Great Basin. The hoodoos are in a dropoff of 2,500 feet in just over three miles. Ecoregion NA530.

Death Valley NP, California and Nevada (site 32). The park straddles the Great Basin and Mojave Desert ecoregions. Eureka Dunes NNL is in the Great Basin portion, and 11,000-foot Telescope Peak and the Panamint Range is part of the Great Basin montane forests ecoregion. Badwater Basin is the well-known area 282 feet below sea level. Northern areas of the park have sand dunes and Ubehebe Crater, a volcanic cinder cone that erupted 2,000 years ago when magma mixed with ground water and exploded, leaving a 600-feet deep crater. Trails lead through pinyon-juniper and conifer forests to Wildrose Peak and Telescope Peak on the west side of the park. Part of the Mojave and Colorado Deserts biosphere reserve. Ecoregions NA515, 1305, and 1308.

Devils Postpile National Monument, California (site 33). Known for its columnar basalt columns, it also contains 100-foot Rainbow Falls on the Middle Fork San Joaquin River. Ecoregion NA527.

Great Basin NP, Nevada (site 34). Major sites are Wheeler Peak at 13,000 feet, which is in a 5,000-year-old bristlecone pine grove, Lehman Caves, and Lexington Arch. A small 300-foot by 400-foot glacier is on the side of Wheeler Peak. The park has 40 limestone caves. The 60-foot-in-height limestone Lexington Arch may actually be a natural bridge formed by flowing water. Great Basin NP is bordered on the south by the Highland Ridge Wilderness Area. The Snake Range, which includes the NP, is an IBA for alpine and subalpine birds. Ecoregion NA515.

Kings Canyon NP, California (site 3). See Man and the Biosphere Reserves. Ecoregion NA527.

Sequoia NP, California (site 3). See Man and the Biosphere Reserves. Ecoregion NA527.

Yosemite NP, California (site 1). See World Heritage Sites. Ecoregion NA527.

XII.  Federal Recreation Lakes

Joe’s Valley Reservoir, Bureau of Reclamation, Utah (site 11). Located in the Manti-La Sal National Forest west of Castle Dale on the San Rafael River. Ecoregion NA530.

Lahontan Reservoir, Bureau of Reclamation, Nevada (site 35). This reservoir on the Carson River also stores water from the Truckee River, which reaches it via a 32-mile long diversion canal. It is known for nesting eagles. Lahontan State Recreation Area surrounds the reservoir. Ecoregion NA1305.

Pine Flat Lake, USACE, California (site 36). Located east of Fresno on the Kings River and bordered by the Sequoia and Sierra National Forests. Ecoregion NA1202.

Scofield Dam, Bureau of Reclamation, Utah (site 37). This is an irrigation project on the Price River, operated as Scofield State Park. Ecoregion NA530.

XIII.  National Trails

Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail (site 38). Extending 2,600 miles from Canada to Mexico, the trail passes through some of the most scenic areas in California. Coastal sage and chaparral lands that the trail passes through, from south to north, are Cleveland NF, Hauser Wilderness, San Bernardino NF, San Jacinto Wilderness, San Gorgonio Wilderness, Angeles NF, Sheep Mountain Wilderness, San Gabriel Wilderness, Kiavah Wilderness, Domeland Wilderness, and Sequoia NF.

Black Point National Recreation Trail (NRT), Sierra NF (site 19). Located west of Huntington Lake, this 0.6-mile trail to a mountain top is at the edge of the Kaiser Wilderness and offers scenic views of the lake and San Joaquin River canyon. Ecoregion NA527.

Cannell Meadow NRT, Sequoia NF (site 39). This mountain bike trail extends for 11.5 miles and offers views of the Kern River valley. Ecoregion NA527.

Cascade Falls NRT, Dixie NF, Utah (site 40). This 0.5-mile trail begins at Spruces Campground and leads past pink and white cliffs to a cave mouth with a waterfall. The cave is a drain of Navajo Lake. The stream becomes Virgin River and flows through Zion NP. Ecoregion NA530.

Columns of the Giants NRT, Stanislaus NF (site 41). Unique columnar basalt like Devils Postpile, located on Route 108 at Dardanelle. Ecoregion NA527.

Congress NRT, Sequoia NP, California (site 42). This two-mile trail through the Giant Forest passes numerous famous giant sequoia trees. Ecoregion NA527.

Crystal Cave NRT, Sequoia NP, California (site 42). This one-half mile trail is the entrance path for visitors touring the underground caverns, and passes six waterfalls. Ecoregion NA527.
Fish Creek NRT, Manti-La Sal NF, Utah (site 37). This ten-mile trail begins at Scofield Reservoir and offers views of the Blackhawk coal seam. Ecoregion NA530.

Grimes Point NRT, BLM Carson City District, Nevada (site 43). This one-half mile trail winds through the Grimes Point Archaeological Area, allowing views of rock art. Ecoregion NA1305.

Huntington Canyon, Left Fork, NRT, Manti-LaSal NF, Utah (site 44). This six-mile trail extends from sagebrush to spruce-fir forest, beginning at the Forks of Huntington Canyon Campground. Ecoregion NA530.

Jackass Creek NRT, Sequoia NF (site 45). This six-mile off-highway vehicle trail begins north of Fish Lake Campground in the northeastern part of Sequoia NF west of South Sierra Wilderness.

Kings River NRT, Sierra NF, California (site 36). This trail covers three miles of the lower Kings River with views of waterfalls and rapids and granite formations. Ecoregion NA527.

Lakeshore NRT, Fishlake National Forest, Utah (site 46). This 14-mile mountain bike trail follows the shoreline of Fish Lake. Ecoregion NA530.

Methusalah NRT, Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest, Inyo NF, California (site 47). This four-mile trail extends through the Schulman Grove of 4,000-year old bristlecone pines.

Mount Charleston NRT, Spring Mountains National Recreation Area, Utah (site 20). This eight-mile trail traverses an ancient bristlecone pine forest and offers views of Las Vegas. Ecoregion NA515.

Pinecrest Lake NRT, Stanislaus NF, California (site 21). This four-mile trail encircles Pinecrest Lake, South Fork Stanislaus River, on Route 108. Ecoregion NA527.

Rancheria Falls NRT, Sierra NF, California (site 19). This one-mile trail east of Huntington Lake ends at a 150-foot waterfall. Ecoregion NA527.

Shadow of Giants NRT, Sierra NF, California (site 19). This one-mile trail through Nelder Grove of giant sequoias four miles south of Yosemite National Park. Ecoregion NA527.

Skyline NRT, Fishlake NF, Utah (site 48). This nine-mile trail follows the 10,000-foot ridgeline of the Tushar Mountains east of Beaver. Ecoregion NA530.

Summit NRT, Giant Sequoia NM, California (site 49). This trail begins near Quaking Aspen Campground and extends north and south of the Western Divide Highway (Route 190), from Golden Trout Wilderness south to Peyrone Grove of giant sequoias. Ecoregion NA527.

Tahoe Rim NRT, California and Nevada (site 50). This ridgetop trail extends 165 miles in Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit, Toiyabe National Forest, and Lake Tahoe Nevada State Park. The trail makes a complete loop around Lake Tahoe. The portion around the east side of the lake in the map area offers views of the Carson Valley as well as Lake Tahoe. Ecoregion NA527.

Toiyabe Crest NRT, Toiyabe NF and Arc Dome Wilderness, Nevada (site 51). From Kingston Campground, the trail extends south along the crest of the Toiyabe Mountains for 72 miles to the top of Arc Dome. Ecoregions NA515 and NA1305.

Wheeler Peak NRT, Great Basin NP, Utah (site 34). Beginning at the Summit Trail Parking Area, this ten-mile trail leads to 13,000-foot Wheeler Peak. Ecoregion NA515.

Whipple NRT, Dixie NF, Utah (site 52). This six-mile trail in the Pine Valley Mountains Wilderness starts at the Pine Valley Recreation Area and reaches the summit of 10,000-foot Signal Peak in six miles. Ecoregion NA530.

Whitney Portal NRT, Inyo NF, California (site 13). This trail extends four miles from Mount Whitney trailhead downhill to Lone Pine Campground, and is noted for granite boulders and views of the Alabama Hills. Ecoregion NA527.

Zumwalt Meadow NRT, Kings Canyon NP, California (site 3). This trail leads 1.5 miles through the Kings River valley, with views of the Grand Sentinel, which consists of vertical granite cliffs. Ecoregion NA527.

XIV.  Further Reading

Feng, Ziahong and Samuel Epstein. 1994. Climatic Implications of an 8000-Year Hydrogen Isotope Time Series from Bristlecone Pine Trees. Science 265:1079-1081.

Ferguson, C.W. 1968. Bristlecone Pine: Science and Esthetics. Science 159:839-846.

Ferguson, Gary, John Clayton, and Maureen B. Keilty. 2001. Guide to America’s Outdoors: Southern Rockies. National Geographic, Washington, D.C.

Holden, Constance A. ed. 1995. California Volcano’s Slow Fizz a Warning? Science 269:1223.

Kerr, Richard A. 1984. Long Valley Is on Low Simmer for Now. Science 224:975.

Kerr, Richard A. 1983. Mammoth Lakes Quiet but Concern Persists. Science 219:373-374.

LaMarche, Valmore C., Jr. 1974. Paleoclimatic Inferences from Long Tree-Ring Records. Science 183:1043-1048.

Miller, Richard F. and Peter E. Wigand. 1994. Holocene Changes in Semiarid Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands. BioScience 44:465-474.

Mohlenbrock, Robert H. 1984. The Field Guide to U.S. National Forests. Congdon and Weed, Inc.

O’Gara, Geoffrey. 2000. Guide to America’s Outdoors: Far West. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.

Savage, J.C. and M.M. Clark. 1982. Magmatic Resurgence in Long Valley Caldera, California: Possible Cause of the 1980 Mammoth Lakes Earthquakes. Science 217:531-532.

Swetnam, Thomas W. 1993. Fire History and Climate Change in Giant Sequoia Groves. Science 262:885-889.

UNESCO-Man and the Biosphere Reserves Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 5/30/11).

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 5/22/11).

To Be Continued Next Month