This ecoregion includes grasslands along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains (the Rocky Mountain Front) of Montana and Alberta, as well as the semiarid high mountain valleys defined by the Missouri River and its tributaries and the Yellowstone River and its tributaries.  The grassland continues west of  grasslands around Flathead Lake are also included in this ecoregion.

Within the Rocky Mountain Front area are hills and scattered buttes.  Evidence of glaciation is present in many areas, with pothole lakes, glacial moraines, and outwash plains. The grassland surrounding the Little Belt Mountains is limestone-rich,with some caverns in hills east of the Elkhorn Mountains. To the south, the area of the Missouri headwaters and upper Yellowstone tends to be more arid, with sagebrush steppe.  Other areas with sagebrush steppe are the Big Hole valley, Madison Valley, and Beaverhead River valley.

On the Rocky Mountain Front between Choteau, Montana and the Pine Butte Swamp, fossil remains of embryonic, hatchling, juvenile, and adult dinosaurs were found at Egg Mountain in 1979. The Egg Mountain site and the general vicinity has produced remains of adult and embryonic individuals of duck-billed dinosaurs and several other species.  There are several thousand individual fossils.  Each nest held 22 to 30 eggs, hatching babies about a foot long. The eggs appear to represent communal nests (Varrichio et al. 2008). Study of the juvenile dinosaur bones preserved at the Two Medicine Formation indicated that growth plates were present.  Growth plates are discs of cartilage found in birds that are involved in rapid bone elongation during development. The presence of growth plates provided additional evidence that birds are evolutionarily linked to dinosaurs and that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds (Barreto et al. 1993). Rapid bone growth also implies that these dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Another major implication and finding from the studies of the Two Medicine Formation are that dinosaurs provided parental care, and that that care was provided by both males and females.  This finding indicates that bird parental care originated with their dinosaur ancestors (Varricchio et al. 2008). The climate where the dinosaurs nested is believed to have been semiarid, and this is confirmed by insect trace fossils of wasps and bees and their burrows that are visible in the rocks.  There are so many cocoons that the outcrop is nicknamed Pete’s Pupa Peninsula (Martin and Varricchio 2011).

As a result of the discoveries of dinosaurs on the Rocky Mountain front, the vicinity of Choteau attracted amateur fossil hunters, some of which trespassed on private property and damaged fossil localities (Potera 1995).  In order to get some control over the situation, the Nature Conservancy purchased Egg Mountain, which is now owned by the Museum of the Rockies. The Two Medicine Dinosaur Center in Bynum, Montana, offers field paleontology workshops at sites on the Rocky Mountain front.

The Montana Valley and Foothill grasslands contains a key archaeological site related to the peopling of the Americas.  Evidence from molecular, genetic, and archaeological records suggests that humans dispersed from southern Siberia, in the Trans-Baikal region (subject of a future post) after the last glacial maximum, arriving in the Americas as the continental ice sheet receded and a coastal corridor opened up.  The founding population is believed to be as low at 5,000 (Goebel, Waters, and O’Rourke 2008), and there are believed to have been several waves of migration.

By about 11,000 years before present (BP), a distinctive type of fluted stone projectile point, along with bone and ivory tools, was in use throughout the Americas, known as the Clovis point. Bone and ivory tools were used as foreshafts to attach fluted projectile points, which provided a weapon that could slay mammoths and other large animals, helping to explain how early hunters were able to kill animals 12 feet in height and weighting several tons (Lahren and Bonnichsen 1974).  It is believed that Clovis technology originated and spread throughout North America in as little as 200 years (Waters and Stafford 2007). In 1968 near Wilsall, Montana, in this ecoregion, a child skeleton was found in a burial at the Anzick site. The burial was in a rockshelter near a buffalo jump. The site also included one other skeleton and over 100 stone and bone artifacts (Lahren and Bonnichsen 1974).  One skeleton has been dated to 12,600 years BP. In 2014, the full genome was reconstructed, and the results confirm that the individual was related to the Central and South American Indian community, which is in turn related to the Siberian people (Rasmussen et al. 2014).

The Butte-Anaconda area is the nation’s largest National Historic Landmark District, as described below.  However, over 100 years of mining at Butte and Anaconda produced a large concentration of areas in the floodplain that are contaminated with metals.  These areas extend from Butte and Walkerville 26 miles downstream along Silver Bow and the Clark Fork River. Metals also accumulated in the Milltown Reservoir area upstream from Missoula.  These areas are currently in various stages of cleanup as Superfund sites.

There are 11 National Historic Landmarks (NHLs) in the Montana Valley and Foothill Grasslands, including the nation’s largest multi-site landmark at Butte.  Four sites are associated with the Lewis and Clark expedition. Great Falls Portage is located both upstream and downstream of present-day Great Falls, Montana; the NHL includes the upper and lower campsites and portage routes; the middle portage route has been obliterated by modern-day Malmstrom AFB and the city of Great Falls. The portage lands in the NHL are privately owned. The lower portage campsite is one mile downstream from the mouth of Belt Creek (N47˚37’ W111˚3’). It includes the campsite, Sulphur Spring, which is opposite of the mouth of Belt Creek, the gorge below Morony Dam, and the portage corridor to the east end of Malmstrom AFB (N47˚30’ W111˚9’). The upper portage includes a site on River Drive, south of Great Falls, on the east bank of the Missouri River (N47˚28’ W111˚18’). The portage corridor extends northeast to Mount Olivet Cemetery (N47˚29’ W111˚15’).

Missouri Headwaters State Park (N45˚56’ W111˚30’) protects the Three Forks of the Missouri NHL. Trails lead to the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison, which is the beginning of the Missouri River, and to Fort Rock, an overlook of the area. The confluence of the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin Rivers contains riparian habitat that supports passerines. It is an IBA for red-naped sapsucker, least flycatcher, and catbird. It is reached from Exit 278 on I-90 at Three Forks.

Traveler’s Rest State Park (N46˚45’ W114˚6’) is just off of U.S. Route 12 west of U.S. Route 93 along Lolo Creek. It houses the only archaeologically verified campsite of the Lewis and Clark expedition. The actually centuries-old campsite was used from September 9-11, 1805, on the way west, and then again from June 30 to July 3, 1806, on the return trip. In 2002, a latrine, cooking fire, and other artifacts were found, reinforcing its status as a pivotal site on the Lewis and Clark Trail.

Camp Disappointment (N48˚40’ W112˚49’) is a privately owned site between Browning and Cut Bank. This meadow located below a large cliff beside Cut Bank Creek is the most likely location of the northernmost camp of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1806. The expedition group exploring this area was led by Meriwether Lewis, and the purpose of this circuit was to determine if any tributary of the Missouri reached the latitude of 50 degrees north. The disappointment was that the river system did not contain tributaries reaching that far north. It was important to know the northern extent of the drainage of the Missouri River, because this would define the northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase territory and the future United States boundary between Lake of the Woods and the Pacific (other tributaries of the Missouri, notably the Milk and Frenchman Rivers, do extend north of the 49^th parallel but not north of the 50^th). Later diplomacy set the boundary at the 49^th parallel, where it remains today.  At the camp, Lewis and his group encountered the Blackfeet Indians. When the Indians attempted to steal the guns and drive off their horses, three Indians were killed, the only deaths of Indians during the entire journey. Also at the site is a 300-foot-high cliff which was a buffalo jump. The creek which washes by the foot of the cliff has exposed animal bones.

Four NHLs are associated with territorial history. Bannack State Park and Whites Bear Mine (BLM)) (N45˚10’ W113˚0’), are Montana’s first territorial capital and the site of the first gold discovery in 1862. The state site includes 50 buildings along Main Street. About half of the buildings are pre-1890 and from the territorial period, including the Masonic Temple, Methodist Church, and Court House/Hotel. Ditches were dug to bring water 30 miles to increase water supply. The NHL includes the town, the gallows site, and the Whites Bar Mine (two miles east on Grasshopper Creek).

Virginia City Historic Properties, Montana Heritage Commission, and Virginia City Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC), Bureau of Land Management (BLM) (N45˚18’ W111˚57’), are on State Route 287. Virginia City and nearby Nevada City are gold mining boom towns from the 1860s. There are over 100 buildings complete with artifacts and furnishings in Virginia City, and 14 buildings in Nevada City with 100 other buildings moved from elsewhere to create a living history exhibit. The state owns a quarter of the buildings in Virginia City and all of Nevada City.

Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site (N46˚25’ W112˚45’), on I-90 at Exit 184 on the north side of Deer Lodge, commemorates the role of cattlemen and the open range cattle industry in American history. The period of significance for the ranch is 1862 to 1919, when the ranch was headquarters of a ten-million-acre cattle empire. The site is 1,618 acres on the Clark Fork River. Ranch buildings, which have original furnishings, are on site. Ranching activities continue for historical interpretation.

C.M. Russell Museum (N47˚31’ W111˚17’) includes the home and studio of America’s foremost western artist, Charles M. Russell.  He first went to Montana four years after Custer’s last stand and was able to witness Montana territory before it was settled. At that time, there were Indian tribes pursuing tranditional activities and large herds of buffalo. He recorded his experiences in paintings, and in 1886 had a painting displayed at the St. Louis Art Exposition. After riding the range, he settled in Great Falls in 1900 to paint full time. In the statuary hall of the U.S. Capitol, a statue of Russell represents the state of Montana. The National Historic Landmark house and studio are included in a larger complex called the C.M. Russell Museum, owned by the City of Great Falls.

The remaining three sites are associated with the statehood period and 20^th century history of Montana.  Butte-Anaconda Historic District includes the towns of Anaconda and Walkerville and the track of the Butte, Anaconda, and Pacific Railway between Butte and Anaconda. There are 5,991 contributing properties, making this the nation’s largest NHL. This area was designated because of its historic copper production, its role in westward expansion, and its part in the history of the labor movement in the U.S.

The Anaconda portion of the district (N46˚8’ W112˚57’) is a late 19^th century company town, where the company operated the smelters, railroad, bank, newspaper, hotel, and other properties. There are three historic districts included in the Anaconda portion of the NHL. The Anaconda Commercial District is a 12-block area on State Route 1 at Main Street. To the west is the West Side Neighborhood, which was built for professional and managerial classes, and to the east is the Goosetown neighborhood, built for the workers. The original copper smelters, known as the Anaconda Old Works, were constructed in two sites on the north edge of town. The copper smelters were established at the beginning of the electrification of the country, and the need for copper wire led to a 30-year boom as the world’s greatest copper-producing center.

Copper ore was transported between Butte and Anaconda by the Butte, Anaconda, and Pacific Railroad, which is a constitutent of the NHL. The main rail yard for the Butte Anaconda, and Pacific RR is located on the northwest side of Anaconda (N46˚8’ W112˚58’). There are 41 miles of track. The Anaconda Depot and Roundhouse are outstanding examples of railroad architecture.

The smelters in Anaconda created large amounts of sulfur and arsenic-laden smoke, which, in addition to affecting human health, damaged vegetation in the Deerlodge NF and nearby farms. As a result, a tall smokestack with pollution control equipment was built for the new Washoe works to the east of Anaconda. The Old Works closed with the opening of the new facility in 1902. Anaconda Smoke Stack State Park, Montana (N46˚7’ W112˚56’) is the largest free-standing brick structure in the world. At 585 feet, it is on a hill overlooking Anaconda and is part of the NHL. The smelters have been dismantled, so it is all that remains of the industrial properties. To reduce pollution of Warm Springs Creek, tailing ponds were constructed.

Butte was originally established as a gold rush town in 1864. The gold mines were quickly supplanted by the silver mines (1874), then copper mines (1880s), to which the town owes its existence. By 1884, more than $1 million per month in copper and silver were being mined. The Centerville working class neighborhood (N46˚1’ W112˚32’) is located around the headframes and mine entrances just to the north of downtown, centered at Park and Main Streets. To the east of downtown is the Berkeley Open Pit mine.  South Butte is a distinct area with railroads and warehouses.  Butte’s Victorian era upper classes lived in the Westside neighborhood, near Montana Tech. Around town there are 14 remaining headframes that were used to haul the ore from the depths of the earth, and 15 extant mines in the city. In south Butte along Harrison Avenue north of I-90, Exit 127, is Socialist Hall (N46˚0’ W112˚31’), which opened in 1916, following the election of Socialist mayors in Anaconda and Butte during the previous decade. Passage of sedition legislation, the lynching of International Workers of the World leader Frank Little in Butte, and union-busting activities of the mining companies within a couple of years quickly ended Socialist Party activities in Montana.

Walkerville (N46˚2’ W112˚32’) is to the north of Centerville and a separate city from Butte. It is notable for its immigrant housing from the late 1800s, much of which is still standing. There are also remaining commercial buildings from the period. The Alice, Lexington, and Moulton silver mines in Walkerville were Montana’s richest.

The Butte, Anaconda, and Pacific Railway ties Centerville on the north side of Butte with Anaconda via the rail yards at Rocker (N46˚0’ W112˚37’), where ore cars were assembled into full-length trains. At East Anaconda, the trains were disassembled into individual cars to be pulled up to the smelters.

Rankin Ranch, William D. Rankin estate, adjacent to Helena National Forest, Montana (N46˚38’ W111˚34’) is the home of Jeanette Rankin, the first woman elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.  She spent her summers at this ranch east of today’s Canyon Ferry Lake on the edge of the Big Belt Mountains. Rankin was a lifelong advocate for women’s suffrage. She was the first woman in the world elected to a national representative body, and was elected at a time when most states did not allow women to vote, although Montana did. She served one term in 1917-1919 and another in 1941-1943. This famously put her in a position to vote against entering both world wars. She was the only representative to vote against the declaration of war on Japan. This ranch, located on Forest Highway 359 along Avalanche Gulch on the east side of Canyon Ferry Lake, was her summer home from 1923 to 1956.

Burton K. Wheeler House, Butte, Montana (N46˚0’ W112˚31’) was the home of a Montana lawyer elected to the U.S. Senate in 1922.  He initially focused on oversight of the Attorney General activities during the Teapot Dome scandal. He then ran for Vice President on the Progressive Party ticket with Robert LaFollette. An early supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt, he broke with the New Deal over the attempt to pack the Supreme Court in 1937. He was also critical of Roosevelt’s foreign policy.

There are two National Natural Landmarks (NNLs) in the Montana Valley and Foothill Grasslands. Glacial Lake Missoula, Camas Prairie Current Ripples, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation and private lands (N47˚31’ W114˚35’) can be seen from Secondary Route 382 south of Hot Springs and north of Perma. The giant current ripples indicate a flood of dramatic proportions, caused when an ice dam 2,500 feet in height near present-day Lake Pend Oreille burst and Lake Missoula drained.

Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge and Red Rock Lakes Wilderness, Montana (N44˚38’ W111˚47’) is an undisturbed, high altitude ecosystem representative of pre-European settlement conditions. There are wetlands, grasslands, shrublands, and forests in a valley framed by mountain peaks to the north and south.  The refuge is 69,000 acres, 32,350 acres of which is designated Wilderness. It is the largest wetland complex in the greater Yellowstone area and has played an integral role in the restoration of the trumpeter swan. The refuge supports the last endemic adfluvial population of the Arctic grayling in the lower 48 states, and provides habitat for a wintering moose population. To provide greater protection for the area, the Centennial Valley Conservation Easement Program plans to acquire up to 42,000 acres of easements.  Bureau of Land Management (BLM) properties within the conservation easement acquisition boundaries are managed as the Centennial Valley Wetland and Waterfowl Production Area and the Centennial Sandhills Area of Critical Environmental Concern. The Nature Conservancy’s Centennial Sandhills preserve is also in this area.

A number of units of the National Forest System include Montana Valley and Foothill Grasslands habitats. The following sites are located in the ecoregion. The Beaverhead NF includes the Lima-Tendoy Landscape of the Beaverhead Mountains and Tendoy Mountains.  In this area the grasslands transition directly to rocky peaks without an intervening band of forest. Browns Creek (N45˚8’ W113˚15’) and Deadman Creek (N44˚28’ W112˚51’) are considered eligible for the wild and scenic river system.  Horse Prairie Research Natural Area (RNA) (N45˚1 W113˚19’) is fenced to exclude livestock and includes sagebrush-fescue habitats with some Douglas-fir forests.

Bitterroot NF contains scattered tracts in the Bitterroot Valley. The Darby Ranger Station, Visitor Center, and Museum (N46˚2’ W114˚11’), is a facility of the National Museum of Forest Service History. Sawmill Creek RNA (N46˚27’ W113˚53’) is east of Stevensville off Forest Road 710 in the Sapphire Range. This contains the best remaining grassland in the Bitterroot Valley and a dry conifer forest of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and Rocky Mountain juniper.

Lewis and Clark NF, Montana, includes the Highwood Mountains in the Montana Valley and Foothill Grasslands ecoregion. The 7,000-foot Highwood Mountains are 45,000 acres and include a mosaic of timber, meadow, and rock outcrops. They are volcanic in origin. Thain Creek Campground (N47˚29’ W110˚35’) is a hiking area with a six-mile loop trail.

In the Lolo NF, the Blue Mountain trail system (46˚50’ W114˚5’) is two miles southwest of Missoula off of U.S. Route 93, with 41 miles of trails. The Remount Depot at Ninemile Visitor Center and Ninemile Wildlands Training Center, located at Exit 85 on I-90, is a historic site used for mule breeding for fighting fires (N47˚2’ W114˚19’). Council Grove RNA (N46˚55’ W114˚11’) is a riparian flood terrace on the Clark Fork River adjacent to Council Grove State Park just west of Missoula. A 33-km stretch of the Clark Fork and Bitterroot Rivers on the Lolo NF boundary from US 12 (N46˚50’ W114˚3’) downstream to Frenchtown (N47˚0’ W114˚16’) is an IBA for Lewis’s woodpecker, red-naped sapsucker, and waterfowl.

The National Park system in the Montana Valley and Foothill Grasslands includes Grant-Kohrs Ranch, previously described under NHLs. Nez Perce National Historical Park, a multi-unit park in Idaho-Montana-Oregon-Washington, commemorates the sites, stories, and artifacts of the Nez Perce Tribe. Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana (N45˚39’ W113˚39’) is one of 38 units of the park. Approximately one-half mile of trails lead to important sites of the 1877 battlefield, including the Nez Perce campsite and the siege site where the soldiers were penned down.

References

Barreto, Claudio et al. 1993.  Evidence of the Growth Plate and the Growth of Long Bones in Juvenile Dinosaurs.  Science 262:2020-2023.

Goebel, Ted, Michael R. Waters and Dennis H. O’Rourke. 2008. The Late Pleistocene Dispersal of Modern Humans in the Americas.  Science 319:1497-1502.

Lahren, Larry, and Robson Bonnichsen. 1974. Bone Foreshafts from a Clovis Burial in Southwestern Montana. Science 186:147-150.

Martin, Anthony J. and David J. Varricchio. 2011. Paleoecological Utility of Insect Trace Fossils in Dinosaur Nesting Sites of the Two Medicine Formation (Campanian), Choteau, Montana.  Historical Biology 23:15-25.

Potera, Carol. 1995. Amateur Fossil Hunters Dig Up Trouble in Montana. Science 268:198-199.

Rasmussen, Morten et al.  2014.  The Genome of a Late Pleistocene Human from a Clovis Burial Site in Western Montana. Nature 506:225-229.

Varricchio, David J. et al. 2008.  Avian Parental Care Had Dinosaur Origin. Science 322:1826-1828.

Waters, Michael R. and Thomas W. Stafford Jr. 2007. Redefining the Age of Clovis: Implications for the Peopling of the Americas. Science 315:1122-1126.

to be continued

The entry includes the national forests, national parks, federal reservoirs, and national trail system in the Idaho Batholith section of the South-Central Rockies forests. These areas are noted for alpine scenery, glacial features, salmon spawning areas, larch and fir forests, meadows, and hot springs.

The Deerlodge National Forest (NF), Montana, is 1.2 million acres and includes the Upper Rock Creek and Clark Fork areas in the Idaho batholith section of the South Central Rockies forests. The Clark Fork Flint Landscape includes the Georgetown Lake Recreation Areas (N46˚11’ W113˚17’) with Lodgepole NRT and ski trails on the north side of the Anaconda Range. It also includes the Flint Creek Range and John Long Mountains visible from I-90 between Butte and Missoula. Racetrack Campground (N46˚17’ W112˚56’) provides access to trails to alpine lakes in the Flint Creek Range.

In the Upper Rock Creek Landscape, Rock Creek (N46˚21’ W113˚56’) is considered eligible for the wild and scenic river system. The West Fork Buttes Botanical Area (N46˚15’ W113˚36’) is a grassland with populations of two rare species, Payson’s bladderpod and Missoula phlox. Crystal Creek trailhead (N46˚13’ W113˚45’) provides access to the Easthouse NRT. Squaw Rock Campground on Rock Creek (N46˚21’ W113˚36’) provides access to scenic Stony Lake (N46˚17’ W113˚45’) and Easthouse NRT. Sapphire Divide RNA (N46˚6’ W113˚46’), Bitterroot and Deerlodge NFs, is southeast of Hamilton along the Sapphire Mountain crest, including Congdon and Fox Peaks and Jerry Lake in the Skalkaho Creek watershed. It contains subalpine larch at timberline. There is a cirque and lake at the base of Congdon Peak in the Deerlodge NF.

In the Anaconda Range in the Upper Rock Creek Landscape are three RNAs. Dexter Basin RNA (N46˚3’ W113˚25’) includes two cirques on the north slope of the Anaconda Range, forested with larch and subalpine fir. Goat Flat RNA N46˚4’ W113˚16’ is on a glacial cirque on the Continental Divide near Storm Lake. There are 11 rare plants on the alpine plateau, which includes Little Rainbow Mountain.  Windy Ridge RNA (N46˚8’ W113˚21’) is on Forest Road 672 between East Fork Reservoir and Georgetown Lake. It is a grassland with five rare grape ferns and a large population of moonwort.

Southwest of Butte and to the west of I-15, Beaver Dam Campground (N45˚53’ W112˚47’) provides access to Fleecer Ridge and the Continental Divide NST. The area around Butte is the Upper Clark Fork Landscape part of the forest.

Lolo NF, Montana, is 2.1 million acres, and includes the Sapphire and John Long Mountains in the South Central Rockies forest ecoregion. Pattee Canyon Recreation area (N46˚50’ W113˚55’) is east of Missoula on Pattee Canyon Road with 27 miles of trails including the Sam Braxton NRT south of the picnic area.  Along Rock Creek are a number of recreation and hiking areas, including Big Hogback Ridge (N46˚25’ W113˚42’), Bitterroot Flat (N46˚28’ W113˚47’), and Welcome Creek Wilderness. Plant Creek RNA (N46˚43’ W113˚53’) is a 300-year-old western larch forest with a spring, found off of Forest Highway 37 south of Missoula in the Sapphire Mountains.

Nez Perce NF, Idaho, is 2.2 million acres, and includes the southern slopes of the Clearwater Mountains in the South Central Rockies forest ecoregion. Most of the forest is in the North Central Rockies forest ecoregion and is discussed elsewhere. Forest Highway 221 extends from Riggins Hot Springs on the Salmon River (N45˚25’ W116˚11’) north to Rocky Bluff Campground on the Gospel Hump Wilderness Boundary (N45˚36’ W116˚1’), then north to Fish Creek Meadow (N45˚51’ W116˚5’). Forest Highway 243 extends from Cold Springs Saddle (N45˚43’ W116˚3’) west to White Bird (N45˚47’ W116˚17’). The Salmon River east of Riggins, Idaho, features a dry, open ponderosa pine forest which houses the densest known population of Lewis’s woodpeckers and is an Important Bird Area. No Business Creek RNA (N45˚37’ W116˚8’) is a watershed that drains north to Slate Creek and the Salmon River, forested with grand fir and subalpine fir. Moose Meadow Creek RNA (N45˚38’ W115˚29’) is east of the Gospel Hump Wilderness and features wet meadows, sphagnum bogs, and lodgepole pine forests.

Payette NF, Idaho, consists of 2.3 million acres in both the Salmon River Mountains to the east of US Route 95 and the Hells Canyon area to the west of US 95. In the Idaho batholith ecoregion, one of the more remote areas in the forest is centered on Big Creek (N45˚8’ W115˚19’), a mining area with a guard station and airstrip south of the Salmon River and east of Warren. To the west of Big Creek is the South Fork Salmon River, which hosts rare wild Chinook salmon, steelhead, and bull trout. Within the South Fork Salmon River management area is Circle End Creek RNA (N45˚4’ W115˚41’) on a small tributary of the South Fork Salmon River, downstream of the Secesh River confluence, forested with ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir. Also in the management area is Phoebe Meadows RNA (N44˚56’ W115˚40’), located on Indian Ridge between the South Fork Salmon River and East Fork Salmon River. These are high elevation wet sedge meadows surrounded by Douglas-fir and subalpine fir forest in the Salmon River Mountains.

The Upper Secesh River region of the forest is reached via the Warren Wagon Road (Forest Road 21), which begins at McCall on Payette Lake (N44˚55’ W116˚7’), then passes Upper Payette Lake (N45˚8’ W116˚1’) and Burgdorf Hot Springs (N45˚17’ W115˚55’) along the Secesh River before turning east to Warren (N45˚16’ W115˚41’). From Burgdorf Hot Springs, Forest Road 246 climbs over the divide and descends 4,000 feet in elevation down to the Salmon River at French Creek via a series of switchbacks called the Fingers (N45˚25’ W116˚2’). The Warren Mining District is a historic site in the forest. In the Warren area, Pony Meadows RNA (N45˚11’ W115˚41’) includes a wet meadow, lake, and bogs in a cirque basin with boulder fields on a tributary of the South Fork Salmon River.

To the north of McCall and east of US 95 is the Lake Creek/French Creek management area. Lava Ridge NRT bisects the area. Lava Butte RNA (N45˚17’ W116˚7’) contains a granitic cirque and a basalt cirque along a ridgeline; glacial basins contain a wet sedge meadow and the Lava Butte Lakes. This ridge is south of the Salmon River between French Creek and US Route 95.  Bruin Mountain (N45˚11’ W116˚7’) contains a hanging valley, and Patrick Butte (N45˚19’ W116˚12’) contains subalpine plants.

North and east of McCall in the Idaho batholith are the Payette Lakes. The Slick Rock proposed NNL is a rock climbing area near McCall. Forest Road 674 begins at Warm Lake (N44˚40’ W115˚42’) in the Boise National Forest and provides a scenic drive along the South Fork Salmon River to the confluence with the East Fork of the South Fork Salmon River (N45˚1’ W115˚43’). Forest Road 48 extends from there west over the Lick Creek Summit (N45˚2’ W115˚56’) to McCall. To the west of the Payette Lakes is the Goose Creek/Hazard Creek management area, which features the Brundage Mountain Resort (N45˚0’ W116˚9’). A trail leads to Goose Creek Falls. Hard Creek (N45˚8’ W116˚13’) and Hazard Creek (N45˚13′ W116˚13’), tributaries to the Little Salmon River at US 95, are scenic streams that are considered eligible for the wild and scenic river system.

Salmon NF, Idaho, is 1.8 million acres and managed with the Challis NF, including parts of the Salmon River Mountains, Beaverhead Mountains, northern Lemhi Range. The Salmon River Mountains section of the forest includes areas east and north of the Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness. From North Fork (N45˚24’ W112˚0’) in the Salmon River Mountains on US 93, Forest Highway 30 can be driven along the Salmon Wild and Scenic River for 46 miles west to Corn Creek (N45˚22’ W114˚41’).  Forest Road 55 follows Panther Creek upstream from the Salmon River to Forney and then Forest Road 112 heads west to Crags Campground (N45˚6’ W114˚31’), which provides access to the Bighorn Crags in the Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness, which are soaring white granite needles. The Yellowjacket Guard Station (N45˚0’ W114˚29’) is the site of a 1930s CCC camp and is on the NRHP.  The Leesburg ghost town (N45˚13’ W114˚7’), on Napias Creek west of Salmon, was the site of a gold mining area beginning in 1866. Allan Mountain RNA (N45˚36’ W114˚3’) is a 9,000-foot mountain near the Montana border west of US Route 93. It supports subalpine larch at the southern limit of its range, along with beargrass, grasslands, and lateral and terminal moraines. Dry Gulch-Forge Creek RNA (N44˚54’ W114˚34’) is on the boundary of the Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness and contains hot springs on Forge Creek, a 75-foot waterfall, and forests of Douglas-fir, aspen, mountain mahogany, and sagebrush-grasslands. Colson Creek RNA (N45˚15’ W114˚32’) is an area of sagebrush-grass in the Salmon River canyon upstream from the Middle Fork Salmon junction. The Salmon River canyon is a transition between sagebrush-steppe and grassland to the west.

In the northern Lemhi Mountains are three RNAs. Bear Valley Creek RNA (N44˚48’ W113˚48’) extends from low elevation sagebrush-grass to alpine conditions in the northern Lemhi Mountains. There is an area of land slippage and snow slide erosion. Mill Lake RNA (N44˚39’ W113˚13’) is an alpine area along a 10,000-foot spine of the Lemhi Range with small lakes and wet meadows. There is a small cirque, evidence of alpine glaciation. Sheep Mountain RNA (N44˚23’ W113˚17’) is a 10,000-foot ridge in the Lemhi Range with whitebark pine and alpine vegetation on the boundary between the Challis and Salmon NFs.

In the Beaverhead Mountains section of the forest is Lemhi Pass NHL (see), Continental Divide NST (see), and Lewis and Clark NHT (see). Davis Canyon RNA (N45˚19’ W113˚45’) is on the continental Divide at Ajax Mountain. This high elevation watershed is dominated by rock talus and a canyon with boulder fields. It is forested with Douglas-fir and beargrass at its southern limit.

Sawtooth National Forest, Idaho, is 1.7 million acres. The northern portion of this forest is in the South-Central Rockies forests. Notable mountains  in the South-Central Rockies portion include the Sawtooth, Boulder, White Cloud, Smoky, and Pioneer ranges. The forest also extends south into the Snake-Columbia shrub steppe and Great Basin shrub-steppe.

The forest includes the southern part of the Idaho Batholith east of Featherville. The Middle and Upper South Fork Boise River Management areas are upstream from Anderson Ranch Reservoir and include numerous hot springs. Along the South Fork Boise are the Willow Hot Springs (N43˚36’ W115˚9’), Baumgartner Hot Spring (N43˚36’ W115˚4’), and Lightfoot Hot Springs (N42˚36’ W114˚57’). On Big Smoky Creek, a tributary to the South Fork Boise, are Skillern Hot Springs (N43˚39’ W114˚49’). On Little Smoky Creek are Worswick Hot Springs (N43˚34’ W114˚48’) and Preis Hot Springs (N43˚35’ W114˚50’). The Idaho Centennial Trail enters the forest in this area and proceeds north. The southernmost mountain range overlooking the Camas Prairie is the Soldier Mountains, where there is a ski area (N43˚29’ W114˚50’).

To the east of the South Fork Boise River watershed is the Big Wood River watershed and the Ketchum area, where there are 250 miles of trails in the Pioneer Mountains. North of Sun Valley Ski Area in the Pioneer Mountains, Trail Creek (N43˚49’ W114˚16’) and North Fork Hyndman Creek (N43˚44’ W114˚11’) are considered eligible for the wild and scenic river system. Basin Gulch RNA (N43˚49’ W114˚17’) is in the Boulder Mountains near Trail Creek Summit north of Sun Valley. This watershed has old growth whitebark and limber pine, avalanche paths, scree meadows, two cirques, and waterfalls.

In the Little Wood River Management Area in the Pioneer Mountains to the north of Carey Idaho, Box Canyon (N43˚43’ W114˚2’) and Muldoon Creek (N43˚38’ W113˚52’) are considered eligible for the wild and scenic river system.

Sawtooth National Recreation Area (NRA), Idaho, is a 756,000-acre area between Ketchum and Stanley with evergreen forests aspen, and sagebrush meadows. The NRA includes the Sawtooth Range, Sawtooth Valley, White Cloud Peaks, Smoky Mountains, and Boulder Mountains. To the South of Stanley, the Sawtooth Scenic Byway climbs Galena Summit. To the east of Stanley, Route 75 is the Salmon River Scenic Byway. To the northwest of Stanley, Route 21 is the Ponderosa Pine Scenic Byway, extending to Boise.

In the Upper Salmon River valley along State Route 75, Redfish Lake (N44˚9’ W114˚55’) has a visitor center and lodging, which is also available at five other resorts. Trailheads are at Pettit Lake (N43˚59’ W114˚52’) and Alturas Lake (N45˚55’ W114˚52’) in the Sawtooth Valley. The Stanley area is a float trip headquarters. Sawtooth Hatchery (N44˚10’ W114˚53’), built by the USACE and operated by the Idaho Game and Fish Department, produces Chinook and steelhead salmon to compensate for the lower Snake River dams, which blocked the salmon runs. Rivers eligible for the wild and scenic river system in the Sawtooth Valley include Salmon River (N44˚4’ W114˚52’), Goat Creek (N44˚12’ W114˚59’), Fishhook Creek (N44˚8’ W114˚58’), Hell Roaring Creek (N44˚2’ W114˚53’), Yellowbelly Lake Creek (N44˚0’ W114˚53’), Alturas lake Creek (N43˚58’ W114˚50’), and Beaver Creek (N43˚52’ W114˚52’). Pole Creek Exclosure RNA (N43˚55’ W114˚44’) is at the head of the wide Sawtooth Valley to the east of State Route 75 and is vegetated with sagebrush, pine, and willow. Redfish Lake Moraine RNA (N44˚6’ W114˚55’) is a large glacial moraine on the east shore of Redfish Lake covered with lodgepole pine forest. Sawtooth Valley Peatlands RNA (N44˚4’ W114˚53’) is at Decker Flat on Huckleberry Creek in the Sawtooth Valley to the west of State Route 75. Three peat bogs, one of which is on a terrace 20 to 30 feet higher than the adjacent bogs, are found here.

Along Route 21 to the northwest of Stanley, a trailhead is at Stanley Lake (N44˚15’ W115˚4’). Rivers eligible for the wild and scenic river system include Elk Creek (N44˚16’ W115˚7’) and Stanley Lake Creek (N44˚14’ W115˚5’). The Grandjean area of the NRA (N44˚10’ W115˚10’), accessed from Route 21 in the Boise NF, includes a trailhead for the South Fork Payette River, which is also eligible for the wild and scenic river system.

To the east of Route 75 are the White Cloud Mountains and the East Fork of the Salmon River, an area of 11,000-foot peaks. Railroad Ridge (N44˚9’ W114˚31’) has unique alpine fell-field botanical areas. Along Route 75 the Salmon River is an eligible wild and scenic river. There are numerous hot springs along the Salmon River. Sunbeam Hot Springs (N44˚16’ W114˚45’) are 11 miles east of Stanley on State Route 75 and offer rock-lined soaking pools. Warm Springs Creek (N44˚13’ W114˚42’), a tributary to the Salmon from the south, is also eligible. The East Fork Salmon River (N43˚57’ W114˚31’) and tributaries Boulder Chain Lakes Creek (N44˚4’ W114˚35’), Little Boulder Creek (N44˚4’ W114˚31’), Germania Creek (N43˚59’ W114˚37’), West Fork East Fork Salmon (N43˚55’ W114˚36’), South Fork East Fork Salmon (N43˚54’ W114˚34’), and West Pass Creek (N43˚58’ W114˚27’) are also eligible. There is a hot spring on West Pass Creek.

To the south of Galena Summit, Route 75 follows the Big Wood River (N43˚49’ W114˚37’), which is considered eligible for a wild and scenic river. Easley Hot Springs Resort (N43˚47’ W114˚33’) is along the Big Wood River. The West Fork North Fork Big Wood River (N43˚52’ W114˚28’) and North Fork Big Wood River (N43˚51’ W114˚26’) are also considered eligible for the wild and scenic river system

Targhee NF, Idaho-Wyoming, includes two areas in the Idaho Batholith section of the South Central Rockies Forests in its 1.6 million acres. In the southeastern section of the Lemhi Range are four brick charcoal kilns (N44˚19’ W113˚11’) that remain from an operation that furnished charcoal to Nicholle smelters. Copper Mountain RNA (N44˚10’ W112˚50’) is a 10,000-foot mountain on a ridge projecting into the Snake River Plain with alpine vegetation on a calcareous substrate. Meadow Canyon RNA (N44˚14’ W113˚10’) is an east-facing slope in the Lemhi Range, containing the finest alpine tundra in Idaho. Bell Mountain on the border with the Challis NF in the RNA is the only known location of three species of columbine in Idaho.

In the Medicine Lodge Mountains (south end of the Beaverhead Mountains), the Webber Creek Trail (N44˚22’ W112˚43) leads to a lake at the base of Scott Peak. The Stoddard-Van Noy Trail (N44˚25’ W112˚13’) is a six-mile loop off of I-15, exit 184. Webber Creek RNA (N44˚22’ W112˚47’) contains the complete watershed of the North Fork Webber Creek and is along the Continental Divide. The RNA includes the summit plateau of 10,000-foot Scott Peak, delta mudflats at a lake, and vegetation of mountain big sagebrush, Douglas-fir, and whitebark pine, typically found further east.

The National Park System in the South Central Rockies forests, Idaho Batholith section, includes the Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho-Montana-Oregon-Washington, which commemorates 38 sites, as well as stories and artifacts of the Nez Perce Tribe. There are two sites in the Idaho Batholith. White Bird Battlefield, Idaho (N45˚47’ W116˚17’) is on US 95 south of Grangeville on the northwestern edge of the ecoregion. This site was the first battle of the Nez Perce War, which resulted in a defeat of the U.S. Calvary and the beginning of the Nez Perce flight to try to escape the Army. Big Hole National Battlefield (N45˚39’ W113˚39’), Montana, contains approximately one-half mile of trails leading to important sites of the 1877 battlefield, including the Nez Perce campsite and the siege site where the soldiers were penned down.

Federal recreation lakes in the South Central Rockies Forest, Idaho Batholith section, include two facilities on the Payette River watershed. Cascade Reservoir, Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho (N44˚34’ W116˚6’) is 30,000 acres providing irrigation storage for the Boise Project and regulated flow for the powerplant at Black Canyon Diversion Dam. It is located on the North Fork Payette River. Boise National Forest-managed property is on the west side of the reservoir. Campgrounds and boat ramps are managed by Lake Cascade State Park. Cascade Reservoir is an Important Bird Area for the western grebe, hosting up to three percent of the world’s population. Deadwood Reservoir, Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho (N44˚18’ W115˚40’) is a 3,000-acre reservoir in the Boise NF on the Deadwood River.  It provides irrigation storage for the Boise Project and regulated flow for the powerplant at Black Canyon Diversion Dam.

The National trail system in the Idaho Batholith section of the South Central Rockies forests includes a National Scenic Trail (NST), two National Historic Trails (NHTs), and 20 national recreation trails (NRTs). The Continental Divide NST is 3,100 miles from Mexico to Canada; sections in the south-central Rockies, Idaho Batholith, traverse the Targhee NF, Beaverhead NF, Salmon NF, Bitterroot NF, Anaconda-Pintlar Wilderness, and Deerlodge NF. The Nez Perce NHT, Idaho-Montana, consists of three sites in the Idaho Batholith section of the South-Central Rockies forests. This trail commemorates the Nez Perce flight from the US Army in 1877. After leaving the Bitterroot Valley, both the fleeing Indians and the U.S. Army camped in Ross Hole (N45˚51’ W113˚58’). In the Bitterrroot National Forest, Trail 406 extends three miles from Indian Trees Campground on US  Route 93 to Forest Route 1206 on the Continental Divide (N45˚44’ W113˚54’) and is a verified section of the original trail used by both the tribe in their flight from the soldiers and Lewis and Clark in their return from the Pacific. Forest Road 106 from Sula over Gibbons Pass (N45˚45’ W113˚55’) is an alternate driving route of the original trail. The Army caught up with the Nez Perce at the site of today’s Big Hole National Battlefield, on the edge of the Anaconda Mountains. After the battle, the Nez Perce retreated and camped at Skinner Meadows (N45˚1’ W113˚31’) on Forest Road 381 in the Beaverhead NF. After obtaining horses in Horse Prairie, the Nez Perce are believed to have crossed into Idaho at Bannock Pass (N44˚49’ W113˚17’). The Frontier Soldiers Grave, Idaho (N44˚27’ W112˚14’), located in the Pleasant Valley near Exit 190 on I-15, was the site where a casualty of the Camas Battlefield was buried.

The Lewis and Clark NHT in the Idaho Batholith section of the South Central Rockies forest includes three sites. Lemhi Pass is described previously in Part A under NHLs. Lost Trail Pass, Idaho-Montana (N45˚42’ W113˚57’) was crossed by Lewis and Clark because the 5,000-foot-deep canyon of the Salmon River was deemed unsuitable as a passage to the Columbia River.  The pass led them into the Bitterroot Valley. Sacajawea Interpretive, Cultural, educational, and Events Center, City of Salmon, Idaho (N45˚9’ W113˚52’) is a 71-acre site on State Route 28 and the Lemhi River, providing a museum and trails commemorating the role of Sacajawea in the expedition.

National Recreation Trails (NRTs) in the Idaho Batholith section of the South Central Rockies forests include 20 trails.  In the Boise Mountains are two NRTs. William Pogue NRT, Boise NF, Idaho (N43˚41’ W115˚40’), extends from the Boise River southeast to Big Roaring River Lake Campground and follows Sheep Creek, which provides scenic vistas and rock formations. The lower western end about eight miles upstream from Arrowrock Reservoir begins in grassland and ponderosa pine while the southeastern end south of Big Roaring River Lake is in Douglas-fir forests. Whoop-um-up Ski NRT, Boise NF, Idaho (N43˚58’ W115˚38’), is in the Boise NF northeast of Idaho City near Edna Creek Campground; this two-mile ski trail connects to 28 other miles of groomed trails.

In the Salmon River Mountains are two NRTs. Knapp Creek-Loon Creek NRT, Challis NF and Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness, is a 20-mile trail which connects Knapp Creek (N44˚25’ W115˚2’) with Loon Creek (N44˚33’ W114˚51’), passing 10,000-foot peaks and cirque lakes along with gray, white, and red rock peaks. Lava
Ridge NRT, Payette NF, Idaho (N45˚17’ W116˚8’) is 7.5 miles, passing large granite bluffs, cliffs, Lava Butte Lakes, and a fire lookout overlooking the Salmon Wild River. It is accessed from the Salmon River at Howard Ranch (north end) or from Big Hazard Lake (south end).

In the Sawtooth Range are four NRTs. Bald Mountain NRT, BLM, Idaho (N43˚39’ W114˚25’), is a five-mile trail which climbs Bald Mountain from the town of Ketchum. Big Wood River NRT, Sawtooth NF, Idaho (N43˚45’ W114˚23’), is a two-mile trail on the west side of State Route 75 connects the Lake Creek and Fox Creek trailheads three miles north of Ketchum, Idaho. Fishhook Creek Nature Trail NRT, Sawtooth NRA, Idaho (N44˚9’ W114˚55’), is a one-fourth mile trail which begins at the Redfish Lake visitor center and passes wetlands before ending at a salmon spawning area in Fishhook Creek. Wood River Nature NRT, Sawtooth NRA, Idaho (N43˚47’ W114˚32’), is a one-fourth mile nature trail on State Route 75 at Wood River Campground 12 miles north of Ketchum.

In the Lemhi Range, Bear Valley NRT, Salmon National Forest, Idaho (N44˚48’ W113˚51’) is a six-mile trail which follows Bear Valley Creek to the 9,000-foot Bear Valley Lakes in the high country of the Lemhi Range south of Lemhi, Idaho. Mill Creek-Main Fork NRT, Challis NF, Idaho (N44˚24’ W113˚21’) is a remote trail accessible from Sawmill Canyon road off of Little Lost/Pashimeroi Road 37 miles north of Howe. The trail passes Mill Creek Lake and Firebox Meadows, then loops to Main Fork.

In the Beaverhead Mountains, Divide-Twin Creek NRT, Salmon NF, Idaho (N45˚38’ W114˚2’) begins at the town of North Fork. The 19-mile trail heads north, then west up Twin Creek to the Continental Divide, then north to Lost Trail Pass on US 93 at the Montana State Line. May Creek NRT, Beaverhead NF, Montana and Salmon NF, Idaho (N45˚39’ W113˚50’) is west of Big Hole National Battlefield at May Creek Campground on State Route 43; the seven-mile-long path connects with the Continental Divide NST along May Creek through a lodgepole pine forest in the Beaverhead Mountains.

In the Sapphire Range, Sam Braxton NRT, Lolo NF, Montana (N46˚50’ W113˚56’), is a 3.5-mile trail is at the Pattee Canyon Recreation Area on Pattee Canyon Road five miles southeast of Missoula. Easthouse NRT, Bitterroot, Deerlodge, and Lolo NFs, Montana, begins at Sawmill Saddle (N46˚27’ W113˚51’) on Forest Road 710 east of Stevensville and ends 20 miles to the south at Skalkaho Pass (N46˚15’ W113˚46’) on State Route 38, following the Sapphire Mountains ridge. A spur of the NRT connects with the Palisade Mountain NRT, extending the trail opportunities. Palisade Mountain NRT, Bitterroot NF, Montana (N46˚18’ W113˚52’), is east of Corvallis on Forest Road 1348. This six-mile trail connects with a spur to the Easthouse NRT.

In the Pioneer Mountains, Grasshopper Ridge Ski NRT, Beaverhead NF, Montana (N45˚28’ W113˚7’) is a 3.5-mile trail off the Pioneer Mountain National Scenic Byway (Forest Highway 73) at Elkhorn Hot Springs. Pioneer Loop NRT, Beaverhead NF, Montana, is a 35-mile trail passing through the West Pioneer Mountains and following the crest. The north trailhead is on Forest Highway 73 south of Wise River (N45˚43’ W113˚1’). The trail proceeds west to Foolhen Mountain (N45˚45’ W113˚11’), south to Schwinegar Lake (N45˚35’ W113˚15’), then east to Lacy Creek Road (N45˚36’ W113˚10’) (Forest Road 1299). Wise River-Elkhorn Hot Springs Snowmobile NRT, Beaverhead NF, Montana (N45˚43’ W113˚1’ to N45˚27’ W113˚7’), is a 23-mile winter trail which connects Wise River with Elkhorn Hot Springs along the Pioneer Mountains National Scenic Byway.

Garnet Winter NRT, BLM, Montana (N46˚53’ W113˚28’) is a 30-mile trail beginning on State Route 200 30 miles east of Missoula at the Greenough Post Office and offering views of the Blackfoot River Valley from the Garnet Range. Lodgepole NRT, Deerlodge NF, Montana (N46˚13’ W113˚16’), is a 3.5-mile loop trail in the Flint Creek Range beginning at the Lodgepole Campground/Flint Creek Dam ten miles south of Phillipsburg on State Route 1.

(to be continued)

Along the Island Park Caldera Wall; Petrified Forests; Hot Springs

This part describes the federal parks, forests, reservoirs, and trails in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Included are the Grand Tetons, Wyoming, Absaroka, Madison, and Little Belt Mountains.  National wilderness areas, which dominate some of the forests, are described in Part C. Some of the more spectacular units of the National Forest (NF) System are within the Greater Yellowstone subsection of the South Central  Rockies forests ecoregion. Many of the sites are little known and would be well known and  notable in their own right were they not in the shadow of Yellowstone National Park.

Beaverhead NF, Montana, is 2.1 million acres and includes the Tobacco Root Mountains, Snowcrest Range (site 1 on map B; N44˚52’ W112˚6’), Gravelly Mountains, and western Madison Range in the Greater Yellowstone subsection of the South Central  Rockies forests ecoregion. In the Tobacco Root Mountains are Potosi Hot Springs (N45˚35’ W111˚54’) and Potosi Warm Springs south of Pony (site 2).  The Mill Creek valley (N45˚29’ W112˚4’) and Branham Lakes areas are accessed from Sheridan on State Route 287 (site 3). The Gravelly Range Road (Forest Highway 290; site 4) extends from north to south and provides a scenic drive along the mountain crest from Red Rock Lakes to Monument Ridge (N44˚56’ W111˚51’), Clover Meadows (N45˚2’ 111˚50’), and Schultz Cow Camp (N45˚8’ W111˚53’). Portions of the Lee Metcalf Wilderness (Taylor-Hilgard and Spanish Peaks units) are in the forest in the Madison Range.

Beaverhead NF Research Natural Areas (RNAs) are in the Gravelly Range. North of Red Rock Lakes is Cliff Lake RNA (N44˚46’ W111˚34’) on a relatively flat bench overlooking Cliff Lake 500 feet below (site 5). It is about one-half sagebrush and grassland and one-half forested with pine aspen, and Douglas-fir. There are campgrounds and hiking trails in the area. A trail from campgrounds on the Madison River (N44˚53’ W111˚35’) climbs Gold Butte for views of the Madison River valley. Also in the Gravelly Range off Standard Creek Road is Cave Mountain RNA (N44˚55’ W111˚47’), which includes Big Horn Mountain and Cave Mountain, with alpine grasslands, steep escarpments and talus slopes (site 6). There are two vertical caves on Cave Mountain. Cottonwood Creek RNA (N44˚58’ W111˚57’) is off Forest Highway 100 east of the Ruby River in the Gravelly Range. It is a grassland and shrubland on south-facing slopes and is fenced to exclude livestock (site7).

Bridger NF, Wyoming, is 1.7 million acres including the peaks of the Wyoming Range and Salt River Range, which run south from the Grand Canyon of the Snake River for 80 miles. The Greys River Road (Forest Road 138) extends between the two ranges and provides access. In the south part of the forest is Hamms Fork (N42˚15’ W110˚44’), the stage station where the Overland Stage Route joined the Mormon Trail (site 8). Periodic Spring (N42˚45’ W110˚51’) flows for 18 minutes, then stops for 18 minutes. It is located in the scenic Swift Creek canyon east of Afton in the Salt River Range (site 9). Kendall Warm Springs (N43˚3’ W110˚0’) consists of 85˚F thermal seeps on a limestone ridge along the Green River (site 10). A strong odor of sulfur emanates from the springs. During winter, the aquatic vegetation in the stream, consisting of a type of algae called stoneworts, stays green. Stoneworts become calcified, and as they die, their limy residue accumulates to form layers of travertine. The springs are the home of the endangered Kendall Warm Springs dace.  The spring run goes over a waterfall into the Green River (Mohlenbrock 1991).

Commissary Ridge (N42˚27’ W110˚40’ south to N41˚55’ W110˚37’) and adjoining parallel ridges are an IBA for raptor migration (site 11). Lake Alice (N42˚25’ W110˚45’), south of the Tri-Basin Divide, was created when a landslide dammed Poker Creek with a mile-long pile of debris (site 11). Only one species of fish, the cutthroat trout, inhabits the isolated lake, which is accessible by a one-mile hike from Hobble Creek. The Grand Canyon of the Snake River (N43˚12’ W110˚52’) along US 26-89 is the most productive bald eagle nesting area in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (site 12). Big Fall Creek (N42˚23’ W110˚32’) is a scenic waterfall with travertine formations (site13). Wyoming Range NRT traverses the forest for 75 miles, beginning at the Hoback River (N43˚17’ W110˚40’) in Teton NF and ending at Snider Basin (N42˚30’ W110˚32’). Scenic Middle Piney Lake (N42˚36’ W110˚34’) provides an access point along the trail and a waterfall nearby (site 14).

Bridger NF RNAs include Swift Creek RNA (N42˚44’ W110˚49’), near Swift Creek Canyon and Periodic Spring (site 9). It has outstanding examples of coniferous, riparian, and montane forb communities. Also nearby just to the north is Alton Front RNA (N42˚46’ W110˚54’), which includes Anderson and Blaney Canyons and is in the Douglas-fir-shrubland-sagebrush grassland transition (site 9).

Caribou NF, Idaho-Wyoming, is one million acres of public land in both the Great Basin and South-Central Rockies ecoregions. In the South Central Rockies at the south end of the Preuss Range is Montpelier Canyon (N42˚20’ W111˚12’), along US 89, a scenic and hiking area (site 15). The Summit View area in the Aspen Range is another hiking area. The Diamond Creek trailhead (N42˚43’ W111˚10’) provides access to the Webster Range (site 16). Along Stump Creek (N42˚48’ W111˚5’) west of Auburn, Wyoming, the trail follows the original route of the Lander Cutoff, an emigrant trail. An extensive trail system in the Caribou Range is accessed from Pine Bar (N43˚0’ W111˚11’) on Route 34 east of Grays Lake (site 17). Also east of Grays Lake and Caribou Mountain is the ghost town of Caribou City (N43˚6’ W111˚16’), which was the largest mining town in Idaho with 1,500 residents in 1897. The town was a gold mining site. On US Route 89 at the upper end of the Salt River embayment of the Palisades Reservoir in Wyoming is the Alpine Wetlands Viewing Area (N43˚8’ W111˚2’). These constructed ponds provide waterfowl and shorebird habitat and are an IBA (site 18).

Caribou NF RNAs are Meade Peak RNA (N42˚30’ W111˚15’) in the Preuss Range northeast of Georgetown, Idaho (site 19), which is a high elevation parkland of Douglas-fir, limber pine, and Engelmann spruce; and Horse Creek RNA (N42˚48’ W111˚8’), in the Webster Range west of Auburn, Wyoming (site 20), which is a forest of subalpine fir and lodgepole pine with buffalo berry (Shepherdia) shrub layer.

Custer NF, Montana (site 21) is 1.1 million acres and mostly east of the map area. An area of the Absaroka Mountains in the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness, Stillwater River watershed, including the Lake Plateau (45-17, 110-5) extends west into the map area to the north of Yellowstone NP.

Deerlodge NF, Montana (site 22), is 1.2 million acres and extends mostly to the north of the Greater Yellowstone subsection. In the Greater Yellowstone subsection of the South Central  Rockies forests ecoregion, the northern half of the Tobacco Root Mountains are in this NF (N45˚39’ W112˚4’). This includes the South Boulder River drainage, Beall Creek, and Mill Canyon areas.

Gallatin NF, Montana, is 1.7 million acres, including portions of the Absaroka-Beartooth and Lee Metcalf Wilderness areas. The Gallatin Range, Madison Range, Absaroka Range. Big Belt Mountains, and Crazy Mountains are within the forest. At Tom Miner Campground, a trail leads four miles toward Ramshorn Peak to the Gallatin petrified forest (site 23; N45˚9’ W111˚6’). Here are hundreds of petrified trees of 100 species. The forest extends southward into the northwestern corner of Yellowstone NP.  Madison River Canyon Earthquake Area (N44˚40’ W111˚26’) on US 287 in the Madison Range is where a landslide filled the canyon up to 400 feet deep in 1959 (site 24). The landslide killed 28 people, dammed the river and created Earthquake Lake. There is a visitor center at the site. A short trail off of State Route 298 leads to Natural Bridge Falls on the Boulder River (site 25; N45˚31’ W110˚12’).  Continuing south by four-wheel drive at road’s end on the Boulder River, 53 miles south of Big Timber, is Independence ghost town (site 26; N45˚13’ W110˚15’). This area was a gold mine from 1860 to 1904.  Mine shafts and buildings are still visible in this town, which had about 500 people. The Boulder Ranger Station (N45˚31’ W110˚13’) is on State Route 298, 28 miles south of Big Timber (site 27). A visitor center and museum interprets the oldest facility in the National Forest system. The Coffin Lake Trail (N44-46 W111-22) heads south from Hebgen Lake west of West Yellowstone for five miles along meadows of Watkins Creek in the Madison Range (site 24). In the Crazy Mountains north of Livingston is the six-mile Trespass Trail to Campfire Lake (N46˚4’ W110˚24’). It is reached from US 89 at Clyde Park and heading 15 miles northeast (site 28). The short Palisades Falls NRT (N45˚28’ W110˚56’) climbs to an 80-foot waterfall off of Hyalite Creek south of Bozeman (site 29). The Bridger Foothills NRT extends 21 miles along the west side of the Bridger Range. To the east in the Crazy Mountains, pristine alpine lakes are under 11,000-foot peaks on a trail west of Half Moon (N46˚2’ W110˚14’) in Big Timber Canyon (site 28).

Gallatin NF RNAs include seven sites, four of which are in the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness and described under that entry. Palace Butte RNA (N45˚26’ W110˚59’) is located south of Bozeman in the Gallatin Range at the upper end (southern end) of Hyalite Creek (site 29). This contains examples of alpine glaciation, including a matterhorn, cirque, tarn, headwall, and a hanging valley. There are subalpine and timberline areas and four waterfalls. Wheeler Ridge RNA (N45˚28’ W111˚4’) is a ridge between Big Bear Creek and Cottonwood Creek, also south of Bozeman (site 30). Sedge-dominated areas border creeks. There is mature whitebark pine and subalpine fir with limber pine on limestone. Black Butte RNA (N45˚1’ W111˚7’) is bordered by Lee Metcalf Wilderness and Yellowstone NP and overlooks US Route 191 (site 31). It is a dry subalpine forest with parkland openings containing grassland.

Helena NF, Montana, is 970,000 acres and includes the northern end of the Big Belt Mountains with Hanging Valley and Vigilante NRTs. Recreation sites for Smith River State Park float trips are located in the forest.  At Gipsy Lake (N46˚30’ W111˚13’) on Forest Highway 139, trails lead south to rock formations known as the Needles and a number of glacial lakes (site 32). Cabin Gulch RNA (N46˚47’ W111˚45’) is an entire watershed in the Big Belt Mountains north of York off of Lewis and Clark County Road 4 (site 33). Vegetation is Douglas-fir with ponderosa pine and bunchgrass.

Lewis and Clark NF, Montana, is 1.8 million acres covering parts of the Castle, Crazy, and Little Belt Mountains. The Castle Mountains (N46˚33’ W110˚45’) are a hiking area and isolated range (site 34). US 89 (Kings Hill Scenic Byway) provides access to the Little Belt Mountains. Recreation sites for Smith River State Park float trips are located in the forest. The Little Belt Mountains contain Precambrian-age shales which house microfossils approximately 1.4 billion years old. Both cylindrical and spheroidal fossils are present in what was apparently plankton (Horodyski and Bloeser 1978).

Lewis and Clark NF RNAs include three areas in the Greater Yellowstone. Bartleson Peak RNA, (N46˚40’ W110˚9’), is in the Little Belt Mountains and consists of spruce and grassland habitat northwest of Harlowton (site 35). O’Brien Creek RNA (N46˚52’ W110˚44’) is in the Little Belt Mountains west of US Route 89 at Kings Hill Pass on Forest Road 839; it contains riparian communities with springs and seeps vegetated with willow and wet meadows (site 36). Paine Gulch RNA (N47˚4’ W110˚46’) includes an entire watershed and the summit of Servoss Mountain south of Monarch on US Route 89 (site 37).  Forests are of Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, and limber pine, and a subalpine meadow. An endemic species of Cirsium is found in the watershed.

Shoshone NF, Wyoming, was America’s first national forest, consisting of 2.4 million acres of public land. Small areas to east of Yellowstone NP in the Washakie Wilderness west of Eagle Creek Meadows (site 38; N44˚22’ W110˚1’) and along US 26-287 at Togwotee Pass and Brooks Lake (site 39; N43˚45’ W110˚0’) extend into the map area.

Targhee NF, Idaho-Wyoming, is 1.6 million acres. The Coffee Pot Rapids (N44˚30’ W111˚24’) are on the Henry’s Fork above Island Park Reservoir and are popular for floating and hiking along the river (site 40). Where Henry’s Fork cuts a canyon through Big Bend Ridge (the wall of Island Park Caldera) are Upper and Lower Mesa Falls (N44˚11’ W111˚20’), two waterfalls dropping 114 and 65 feet, respectively (site 41). The Big Falls Interpretive Center is located here. Teton Overlook on the road to Grand Targhee Ski Resort (N43˚45’ W110˚57’) provides a panoramic view of the Tetons from the west (site 42). Teton Canyon (N43˚45’ W110˚55’) is a wildflower viewing area east of Driggs, Idaho (site 42). Off Route 31 in the Snake River Range is a trailhead for 4^th of July Peak (site 43; N43˚32’ W111˚11’); off route 33 at Mike Harris Campground (N43˚33’ W111˚4’) southeast of Victor is a trailhead for a trail along the Snake River Range into the Teton NF in Wyoming (site 43). The Kelly Canyon area near Ririe provides access to Table Rock Canyon (N43˚38’ W111˚35’), another hiking area in the Snake River Range (site 44). Big Springs is a National Natural Landmark (see part A). Mesa Marsh (N44˚11’ W111˚18’), located on the opposite side of the road from the Lower Mesa Falls, is on a plateau north of the confluence of the Warm River and Henry’s Fork and east of Mesa Falls, is an IBA for breeding waterfowl (site 45) . The Palisades NRT is also on the forest. The Jedediah Smith and Winegar Hole Wildernesses are in the forest.

Targhee NF RNAs include five sites. Burns Canyon RNA (N43˚38’ W111˚25’) is on a stabilized landslide in the Snake River Range east of Ririe, Idaho (site 44). The landslide was caused by an earthquake. The RNA is noted for its riparian corridor with red osier dogwood and cow parsnip, along with sagebrush, mountain mahogany, maple, and aspen. Willow Creek RNA (N44˚9’ W111˚27’) is north of Ashton ID to the west of US Route 20 (site 46). This is the south slope of the Island Park Caldera and is forested with bigtooth maple, limber pine, Rocky Mountain juniper, Douglas-fir and aspen communities. Thurman Creek RNA (N44˚22’ W111˚29’) contains five springs and wet sedge meadows in the aspen, Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine forests on the edge of Henry’s Fork caldera upstream from Golden Lake in Harriman State Park (site 47). Moose Creek Plateau RNA (N44˚29’ W111˚6’) is located on obsidian sand on the Yellowstone NP boundary southeast of Henrys Lake in an area burned in the Yellowstone fires of 1988 (site 40). It provides a study area for natural succession on droughty soils. The Continental Divide NST crosses the area. Targhee Creek RNA (N44˚44’ W111˚23’) is also on the Continental Divide Trail north of Henrys Lake (site 40). It contains two glaciated basins and a canyon with a limestone wall, six lakes, and small wet meadows.

Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest, Lewis and Clark NF, Montana (site 48; N46˚55’ W110˚53’) is a research facility which focuses on the lodgepole pine silvicultural types in the Little Belt Mountains.  This is the only experimental forest that focuses on lodgepole pine landscape-level management.  Research is on fire history, fisheries, vegetation composition, and silviculture.  One recent study investigated thinning of forests to reduce fuel accumulations.  This is a need throughout much of the West.  A nine-year study showed that noxious weeds colonize roads which are made to access timber harvest areas.  However, the weeds did not colonize adjacent silvicultural treatment areas.  This research indicated the importance of carefully managing roads and vehicles for weed control when conducting thinning operations (Birdsall, McCaughey, and Runyon 2012). Within the Experimental Forest is Onion Park RNA, a subalpine mesic meadow that has escaped grazing.  Access is via Forest Highways 119 and 586 from US Route 89 north of White Sulphur Springs.

Teton NF, Wyoming, includes peaks of the Absaroka Range and Gros Ventre Range. East of Jackson is the Gros Ventre slide (N43˚38’ W110˚33’), a mile-wide rockslide that formed a lake in 1925 (site 49).  The scenic Gros Ventre Valley (N43˚33’ W110˚16’), nicknamed Little Serengeti because of its opportunities to view elk, moose, and bighorn sheep, is to the east (site 49). Buffalo Valley (N43˚50’ W110˚22’), off US 26-287 east of Moran Junction, is another scenic valley (site 50). Granite Creek is accessible from US 189-191 on the Hoback River. The valley includes Granite Hot Springs and Granite Falls (site 51; N43˚22’ W110˚20’). The Gros Ventre and Teton wilderness areas (see) are in the forest.  To the west of Jackson is Teton Pass (N43˚29’ W110˚57’), a hiking and mountain biking area (site52).  The Breccia Cliffs (N43˚47’ W110˚5’) are north of Togwotee Pass on the edge of the Teton Wilderness (site 53). Wyoming Range NRT begins in the forest at the Hoback River (N43˚17’ W110˚40’) and ends in the Bridger NF at Snider Basin.

The National Park System in the Greater Yellowstone subsection of the South Central  Rockies forests ecoregion includes Yellowstone NP, previously described in Part A under World Heritage Sites. There are two other units. Grand Teton NP, Wyoming (site 54), in addition to its famous mountain range and valley, includes two NHLs: Jackson Lake Lodge and Murie Ranch Historic District.The park is an IBA for bald eagle, peregrine, and trumpeter swan. There are 17 different activity areas which offer day hikes and backpacking along 200 miles of trails.

• Colter Bay Visitor Center (site 54; N43˚54’ W110˚39’)—trails to ponds and marsh habitat
• Cunningham Cabin—this is a trail to a historic homestead off US 26-89-191 (N43˚47’ W110˚34’)
• Death Canyon (N43˚40’ W110˚50’ )—trails in this area begin at a trailhead east of Phelps Lake
• Granite Canyon (N43˚37’ W110˚51’)—trails to Marion Lake
• Jackson Lake Lodge (N43˚52’ W110˚35’)—marsh habitat trails to Christian Pond and Lunch Tree Hill
• Jenny Lake Visitor Center (N43˚45’ W110˚43’) —trails to Hidden Falls and Cascade Canyon
• Moose Visitor Center (site 55; N43˚39’ W110˚43’)
• Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve (N43˚38’ W110˚47’)—trails to Phelps Lake.
• Leigh Lake (N43˚49’ W110˚44’)
• Lupine Meadows (N43˚44’ W110˚44’ )—glacial lakes Amphitheater Lake and Garnet Canyon
• Menors Ferry (N43˚40’ W110˚43’)—a historic homestead on the Snake River at Moose
• Signal Mountain Lodge (N43˚51’ W110˚37’)—hike to a mountain east of Jackson Lake
• String Lake (N43˚47’ W110˚44’)—allows a loop through Cascade and Paintbrush canyons
• Taggart Lake (N43˚42’ W110˚45’)—hikes to lakes dammed by glacial moraines
• Teton Village Aerial Tram (N43˚36’ W110˚52’)—from the top of Rendezvous Mountain trails descend into Granite Canyon in the park
• Two Ocean lake (N43˚55’ W110˚32’)—trails to Two Ocean and Emma Matilda Lakes east of Jackson Lodge
• University of Wyoming Research Station (N43˚56’ W110˚39’)—on the eastern shore of Jackson Lake north of Leeks Marina, is a biological and ecosystem research station

John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Memorial Parkway, Wyoming (site 56), includes the public land between Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. The visitor center is at Flagg Ranch (N44˚6’ W110˚40’).  A trail follows the Snake River through Flagg Canyon, providing spectacular Snake River views just south of Yellowstone NP.

Federal and federally licensed recreation lakes in the Greater Yellowstone subsection of the South Central  Rockies forests ecoregion include those of the Bureau of Reclamation and PPL Montana.  Cascade Creek Diversion Dam, Bureau of Reclamation, Wyoming (site 57; N44˚7’ W110˚50’) sends water through a 0.7-mile canal to Grassy Lake. Grassy Lake, Bureau of Reclamation, Wyoming (N44˚8’ W110˚49’) was constructed in 1937 to 1939 on the boundary of Yellowstone National Park in the Targhee NF and  stores water for downstream irrigation (site 57).

Hebgen Lake, PPL Montana, Montana (N44˚47’ W111˚14’) is a reservoir just downstream from West Yellowstone (site 24). It harbors the largest known wintering concentrations of waterfowl in the Rocky Mountains, as several areas have open water in winter. It is an IBA for trumpeter swans, which concentrate in the Madison, Grayling, and South Fork arms of the reservoir.

Holter Lake, PPL Montana (N46˚59’ W112˚0’), is a 27-mile-long reservoir on the Missouri River that includes the Gates of the Mountains (N46˚53’ W111˚55’), a narrow gorge that the river has cut through the Rocky Mountains (site 58). There is a boat-in campground at Beartooth Landing. Gates of the Mountains are a site on the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail. The 1,200-foot cliffs towering above the Missouri River were seen by Lewis and Clark in 1805. A boat tour is offered from the marina at Exit 209 on I-15, 20 miles north of Helena.

Island Park Reservoir, Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho (site 47; N44˚25’ W111˚24’), is part of the Minidoka Project. Irrigation water is stored behind this dam on Henry’s Fork. Recreation sites are administered by the Targhee NF. Geologically, Island Park Reservoir is located in the northwest rim of the Island Park Caldera. The reservoir is an IBA for waterfowl and colonial nesters.

Jackson Lake, Bureau of Reclamation, Wyoming (N43˚51’ W110˚35’) is part of the Minodoka Project; this lake is within Grand Teton NP (site 54). Recreation sites are Colter Bay, Jackson Lake Lodge, and Signal Lake Lodge within the park. A University of Wyoming biological research station is on the lake.

Palisades Reservoir, Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho-Wyoming (site 59), is located on the South Fork of the Snake River. This reservoir stores irrigation water for Minidoka project downstream in Idaho. On US Route 89 at the upper end of the Salt River embayment of the reservoir in Wyoming is the Alpine Wetlands (N43˚8’ W111˚2’). These constructed ponds provide waterfowl and shorebird habitat and are an IBA.

National trail system in the Greater Yellowstone subsection of the South Central  Rockies forests ecoregion includes the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail site at Gates of the Mountains, Holter Lake, described above, and sections of the Continental Divide NST.  Sections of the 3,100-mile trail traverse the Gallatin NF, US Sheep Experiment Station, and Targhee NF in the Greater Yellowstone ecoregion.

Bear Trap National Recreation Trail (NRT), BLM, Montana (site 60), is a nine-mile trail beginning at Madison Power Plant (N45˚29’ W111˚38’) and following the Madison River in Bear Trap Canyon downstream through the Lee Metcalf Wilderness to near Route 84 (N45˚35’ W111˚36’).

Big Sky Snowmobile NRT, Gallatin NF, Montana, extends from Big Sky to Buffalo Horn Creek (N45˚6’ W111˚12’), the Porcupine Divide, Moose Creek (N45˚21’ W111˚18’), and Bear Creek within 16 miles of Bozeman. Another section extends 40 miles from north of West Yellowstone on US 191 (N44˚48’ W111˚6’) to the Tepee Basin (N44˚54’ W111˚11’).

Big Springs Water NRT, Targhee NF, Idaho (N44˚30’ W111˚17’) is a five-mile canoe trail from Big Springs to Macks Inn on US 20 at Henrys Fork of the Snake River (site 40).

Bridger Foothills NRT, Gallatin NF, Montana (site 61), is a 21-mile trail beginning on State Route 86 near Bozeman (N45˚43’ W110˚59’) and extending north to Fairy Lake (N45˚54’ W110˚58’), passing Sacagawea Peak, Ross Peak, and Bridger Peak along its ridgetop course.

Deep Creek NRT, Lewis and Clark NF, Montana (site 62) is an 18.5-mile figure 8 loop trail beginning (N47˚2’ W111˚4’) south of Logging Creek Campground on Forest Highway 839 about 50 miles south of Great Falls, passing Blankenbaker Flats and Deep Creek Ridge.

Drinking Horse Mountain NRT, Bozeman Fish Technology Center, Montana (N45˚42’ W110˚58’) is a two-mile, figure eight loop which ascends the mountain in a 700-foot climb (site 63).

Gallatin Riverside NRT, Gallatin NF, Montana (N45˚25’ W111˚14’), begins at a trailhead on Forest Road 132 two miles off of US 191 (site 64). This 2.4-mile trail follows the opposite side of the river from US 191, passing rapids and canyon vistas.

Garnett Mountain NRT, Gallatin NF, Montana (N45˚26’ W111˚13’), is a 3.4-mile trail which begins at the trailhead on Forest Road 132 two miles off of US 191 and ascends to the top of Garnet Mountain, an old fire lookout (site 64).

Hanging Valley NRT, Helena NF, Montana (N46˚47’ W111˚37’), is a six-mile trail following a steep side canyon to overlook the Trout Creek Canyon (site 33). The trailhead is at Vigilante Campground on County Road 4 northeast of Helena in the Big Belt Mountains.

Lost Cabin Lake NRT, Deerlodge NF, Montana (site 22; N45˚35’ W112˚4’), is a three-mile trail in the Tobacco Root Mountains beginning at the end of Forest Road 107 (South Boulder River Road) about 15 miles south of State Route 359, which goes between Cardwell and Harrison. Mountain goats can be seen on cliffs to the south and east of the lake.

Louise Lake NRT, Deerlodge NF, Montana (N45˚36’ W112˚3’), is a steep four-mile trail which climbs to Louise Lake, surrounded by 10,000-foot peaks in the Tobacco Root Mountains (site 22). It is reached at the end of Forest Road 107 (South Boulder River Road) about 15 miles south of State Route 359, which connects Cardwell and Harrison.

Morning Glory NRT, Yellowstone NP, Wyoming (N44˚28’ W110˚51’), is a 1.5-mile trail to some of the best geysers in Yellowstone (site 65). It leads from Old Faithful north past Castle Geyser, Grotto Geyser, and Riverside Geyser across the Firehole River to Morning Glory Pool.

Natural Bridge NRT, Gallatin NF, Montana (N45˚33’ W110˚12’), is a one-mile trail which crosses a natural bridge and passes a waterfall on the Boulder River south of Big Timber (site 25).

Palisades Creek NRT, Targhee NF, Idaho (N43˚26’ W111˚10’), is north of US 26 and south of Irwin (site 59).  The scenic 5.7-mile trail leads to Upper and Lower Palisades Lakes and provides views of cliffs.

Palisade Falls NRT, Gallatin NF, Montana (N45˚28’ W110˚56’), is a one-half mile trail which climbs to an 80-foot waterfall off of Hyalite Creek south of Bozeman on Forest Highway 62 (site 29).

Refuge Point Ski Trail NRT, Gallatin NF, Montana (N44˚52’ W111˚21’), begins on US 287 at the upper end of Earthquake Lake (site 24). This is a four-mile trail commemorating the meeting place for earthquake survivors in 1959.

Sheridan NRT, Teton NF, Wyoming (N43˚38’ W110˚7’) is a nine-mile trail accessible from the Yellowjacket Flat along the Gros Ventre River and extending up North Fork Fish Creek, Packsaddle Creek, and Squaw Creek to Sheridan Pass (site 66).

South Rim NRT, Yellowstone NP, Wyoming (N44˚43’ W110˚29’), is a nine-mile trail which follows the South Rim of Yellowstone Canyon near Yellowstone Falls (site 67). It begins at the bridge over the Yellowstone River above the Upper Falls and follows the canyon rim past Upper Falls, Lower Falls, and Artist Point, ending at Point Sublime.

Three Senses NRT, Yellowstone NP, Wyoming (N44˚33’ W110˚48’), is a 0.2-mile trail located eight miles north of Old Faithful on Firehole Lake Drive near Pink Cone Geyser (site 68).

Two Top Snowmobile NRT, Targhee NF, Idaho (N44˚37’ W111˚16’), begins at the airport in Henrys Lake Flat; this 28-mile trail is in the Henrys Fork Mountains on the Idaho-Montana border (site 69).

Wyoming Range NRT, Bridger and Teton NFs, Wyoming, extends from Snider Basin (N42˚30’ W110˚32’) on South Piney Creek west of Big Piney (US 189), and follows the spine of the Wyoming Range for 75 miles north to Camp Davis (N43˚17’ W110˚40’) along the Hoback River on US 189-191 south of Jackson.

References

Birdsall, Jennifer L., Ward McCaughey, and Justin B. Runyon. 2012. Roads Impact the Distribution of Noxious Weeds More than Restoration Treatments in a Lodgepole Pine Forest in Montana, USA.  Restoration Ecology 20:517-523.

Horodyski, Robert J. and Bonnie Bloeser. 1978. 1400-Million-Year-Old Shale-Facies Microbiota from the Lower Belt Supergroup, Montana. Science 199:682-684.

Mohlenbrock, Robert H. 1991. Kendall Warm Springs, Wyoming. Natural History, June 1991, pp. 69-71.

This ecoregion is centered on eastern Washington and includes northern Oregon

Snake-Columbia Shrub-Steppe, Part IV, Columbia Basin

Floods of lava, floods of the Ice Age, and dry waterfalls

There are several distinct areas of this shrub-steppe ecoregion of the Columbia Plateau (NA 1309). For the purposes of this discussion, the ecoregion is subdivided into four sections, based on biological or geographic criteria.

The fourth area, the Columbia Basin, is the desert along the Columbia River in northern Oregon and central Washington.  It is underlain by volcanic Columbia River basalts, but the area is most notable for the Ice Age floods that ranged from one million years ago to 13,000 years ago. In the Rocky Mountains to the east, ice dams formed and failed many times, releasing walls of water that surged southwest and flooded the area several hundred feet deep. The rocky barren lands created by the scouring of the floodwaters are known today as scablands (Montgomery 2012). Today there are geologic features throughout the Columbia River portion of the Snake-Columbia shrub-steppe that provide evidence of these floods. The floods were apparently carrying icebergs, since glacial erratics are scattered around places where the water was temporarily constricted. Wallula Gap (1) National Natural Landmark (NNL) is a two-km-wide constriction in the Columbia River, behind which water backed up during the catastrophic Lake Missoula floods 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, creating temporary Lake Lewis until the water drained, probably a week or so. Twice as much water backed up behind Wallula Gap as could pass through.  Tributary rivers such as the Yakima and Walla Walla reversed flow as water surged up them. The Yakima River near Benton City has reverse flow badlands where there were extra scouring and potholes at a restriction to water heading the reverse direction. It is believed that Lake Missoula drained dozens of times, creating temporary floods and a temporary lake each  time.

The Columbia River basalts are a remnant of an earlier event, the eruption of basalts on the edge of the North American continent. Typically, basalts are formed in the oceans at the locations where plates are spreading apart. However, there are also eruptions in the continental crust in a few places, forming major continental basalt plateaus. The 200,000-square kilometer area of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho along the Columbia and Snake Rivers is one such area. The eruption of basalts formed the Columbia Plateau between 17 million and 6 million years ago. The source of the eruptions was the present-day junction of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, from which lava flowed and filled the area to the north and west, from Spokane to the Cascades and down the Columbia River to Portland. One flow, known as the Roza flow, moved 300 km in a matter of days from eastern Washington to the Dalles area. According to Hooper (1982), a lava front about 30 m high, over 100 km wide, and at a temperature of 1100˚C, advanced at a rate of five km per hour. One of the outcomes of catastrophic events like this was the preservation of sites like the Gingko Petrified Forest State Park (2), a NNL.

There is one National Historic Landmark in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe. The B Reactor (3), Department of Energy, Washington (N46˚38’ W119˚39’), was the first production-scale nuclear reactor, built in 1943 to 1944, provided plutonium for the Trinity Test in New Mexico, the first nuclear detonation, and the “Fat Man,” the bomb dropped on Nagasaki. Following the demonstration of a chain reaction at the University of Chicago in 1942, the Manhattan Project began. A site at Hanford was chosen to construct a 250-MW reactor. The B Reactor is a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark, National Civil Engineering Landmark, and Nuclear Historic Landmark.

The National Natural Landmarks of the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe tend to be related to the ice age floods; however, there is one commemorating a unique fossil deposit and another at a water gap of unusual relief.

Drumheller Channels (4), Columbia National Wildlife Refuge and Goose Lakes Unit of Columbia Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚59’ W119˚12’) is an erosional landscape characterized by hundreds of isolated, steep-sided hills surrounded by braided channels. Between 8,000and 12,000 years ago,  glacial Lake Missoula was periodically dammed by ice, then the ice dam broke dozens of times, creating massive floods that scoured the Columbia River drainage.

Grand Coulee (5), Washington is located between Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River and Soap Lake.  This 50-mile-long ice age flood channel was carved by the periodic floods originating from Lake Missoula. Perhaps a highlight of the steep-sided channel is the dramatic Dry Falls (N47˚36’ W119˚21’), a 400-foot dry waterfall is 3.5 miles wide, now in Sun Lakes/Dry Falls State Park. Also occupying Grand Coulee upstream of Dry Falls is Banks Lake/Dry Falls Dam, a Bureau of Reclamation irrigation storage facility within the Columbia Project. Lower Grand Coulee is included in the Sun Lakes Unit of the Columbia Basin Wildlife Area.

Moses Coulee Great Gravel Bar (6), Grant County Public Utility District, Washington (N47˚17’ W120˚5’) was created during the first of the Lake Missoula floods, when the Columbia River surged down Moses Coulee. Later an ice lobe blocked this channel, and all later floods used Grand Coulee. Floods traversing Moses Coulee deposited a massive mile-wide, 400-foot deep gravel bar where it confluenced with the Columbia River. The terminus of the coulee is on Route 28 between Rock Island and Quincy. The gravel bar deposit can be viewed from across the river from Yo-Yo Rock Boat Launch of the Grant County Public Utility District on Wanapum Lake. Public access to the shoreline is available at the Apricot Orchard shoreline access site on Wanapum Lake on Route 28. The entirety of Moses Coulee and the Waterville Plateau to the north is an Important Bird Area (IBA) for greater sage grouse, sage sparrow, and sage thrasher.

Wallula Gap (1), Lake Wallula/ McNary Lock and Dam, Washington (N46˚3’ W118˚56’) is also an ice age flood site. During the Lake Missoula floods, this area on the Columbia River just south of the confluence with the Walla Walla River served as a large-scale hydraulic constriction. Because all the water could not overtop the ridge here, water backed up until the area could drain.

Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park (2), Washington (N46˚57’ W120˚0’) is on I-90 at the Columbia River/Lake Wanapum crossing. This ancient fossil bed contains thousands of logs of Miocene age (15 million years ago) which were entombed in basalt lava flows. Ginkgo, redwood, Douglas-fir, and deciduous trees were growing in the forest. This is also an ice-age flood carved landscape; also present are occasional glacial erratics that rode on ice floes during the floods.

Umtanum Ridge Water Gap (7), Wenas Wildlife Area and BLM, Washington (N46˚48’ W120˚27’) is where the Yakima River goes through Umtanum Ridge. The Yakima River forms the eastern edge of the 105,000-acre Wenas Wildlife Area. Umtanum Ridge rises to 3,000 feet less than one mile from the Yakima River, where the elevation is 1,200 feet. On the north side of the ridge there are also cliffs along Untanum Creek, which has a hiking trail. This precipitous topography was formed as the Yakima River, which predated the ridge building, cut through the ridge as it was rising. To the north of Umtanum Ridge is Manastash Ridge, which has a similar water gap and topographic extremes. State Route 821 follows the river through Yakima River Canyon and the two water gaps between Ellensburg and Yakima. Between the two ridges is Umtanum Creek Valley, which is an IBA. The Roza Diversion Dam is located in the canyon at the water gap.

There is one National Environmental Research Park in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe, Hanford Environmental Research Park (3), Department of Energy (Department of Energy) and Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), Washington (N46˚30’ W119˚30’). This 586-square-mile undisturbed shrub steppe includes the DOE lands of the Hanford Reservation, along with the adjoining Hanford Reach National Monument, Rattlesnake Hills area. Although the central Hanford area includes former nuclear production facilities, the area has been the site of 50 years of ecological, geological, hydrological, climate, soil, and contaminant transport research.

One unit of the National Forest System is in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe, the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area (8), Oregon and Washington. The eastern end of this area around The Dalles extends into this ecoregion. The Columbia Hills area from the Klickitat National Recreational River upstream to Rock Creek (upstream of the John Day River confluence with the Columbia River) is an IBA for raptors.

The National Landscape Conservation System units in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe, Juniper Dunes Wilderness and Lower Deschutes, and Middle Crooked Wild and Scenic Rivers are described separately below under those categories.

There are a number of federally licensed or constructed reservoirs in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe.  On the Columbia River mainstem are seven reservoirs, described moving upstream. The lowermost reservoir in the map area is Lake Celilo (8), USACE, Oregon-Washington (N45˚39’ W121˚0’). This is a 24-mile-long reservoir on the Columbia River formed by The Dalles Lock and Dam. There is a visitor center and fish passage facility at the dam. The area west of the Maryhill/US Route 97 bridge is part of the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area.

Upstream of Celilo is Lake Umatilla/John Dam Lock and Dam (9), USACE, Oregon-Washington (N45˚42’ W120˚44’ upstream to N45˚56’ W119˚18’). This reservoir extends from I-84, Exit 109, 76 miles upstream to Umatilla and includes the Umatilla National Wildlife Refuge. The dam includes fish passage facilities.

Further upstream is Lake Wallula/McNary Lock and Dam (10), USACE, Oregon-Washington (N45˚56’ W119˚18’). Located one mile east of Umatilla on US Route 730, this reservoir includes 48 miles of the Columbia River upstream to Richland. McNary National Wildlife Refuge in Washington is 15,100 acres on US 12-395 southeast of Washington Route 124. Wallula Gap NNL is a two-km-wide constriction in the Columbia River, behind which water backed up during the catastrophic Lake Missoula floods 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, creating a temporary lake until the water drained. It is believed that Lake Missoula drained at least 89 times, creating temporary floods and a temporary lake each time. The McNary NWR is on reservoir lands where the Walla Walla and Snake Rivers confluence with the Columbia. The Walla Walla Delta and Yakima River Delta (I-82 in Richland) are IBAs for waterfowl and shorebirds.

Upstream of Hanford on the Columbia River are a series of  reservoirs. The lowermost is Priest Rapids Reservoir (11), Grant County Public Utility District, Washington (N46˚39’ W119˚55’). The reservoir contains the confluence of Crab Creek with the Columbia River and the Sentinel Gap hydraulic restriction of the ice age floods. Wanapum Lake, Grant County Public Utility District, Washington (N46˚53’ W119˚58’) is a Columbia River reservoir which adjoins Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park NNL, Frenchman Coulee at I-90 Exit 143, and the Great Gravel Bar at Moses Coulee NNL. Frenchman Coulee is an ice age flood site where waters drained from the Grand Coulee and Quincy area. The water dropped 500 feet in a series of huge waterfalls to the Columbia River. The area between Vantage (I-90) and Wanapum Dam  is an IBA for waterbirds and dabbling ducks.

Rock Island Dam (12), Chelan County Public Utility District, Washington (N47˚21’ W120˚6’) was constructed over a period of 50 years, as hydroelectric capacity gradually increased. The Apple Capital Loop Trail is a ten-mile paved walking trail on both sides of the Columbia River in Wenatchee. Lake Entiat, formed by Rocky Reach Dam, Chelan County Public Utility District, Washington (N47˚32’ W120˚18’), is located upstream from Wenatchee. A visitor center provides underwater views of a fish ladder.

The Umatilla River enters the Columbia River and Lake Umatilla from the south. There are four Bureau of Reclamation reservoirs. Three Mile Falls Diversion Dam (13), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N45˚53’ W119˚19’) sends water from the Umatilla River, three miles south of the Columbia River, to the West Extension Main Canal, which extends west to Boardman. A low flow fish passage channel extends from Three Mile Falls downstream to the Columbia River. Maxwell Diversion Dam (13), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N45˚48’ W119˚20’) is located on the Umatilla River on Route 207 between Hermiston and I-84.  This facility diverts water to the Maxwell Canal, which delivers water to Hermiston and areas to the east.  Feed Canal Diversion Dam (13), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N45˚43’ W119˚11’), is on the Umatilla River south of Echo. Water is diverted into the Feed Canal which ends at Cold Springs Reservoir for storage. Cold Springs Reservoir (13), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N45˚52’ W119˚10’) is an irrigation storage reservoir six miles east of Hermiston which receives water from the Feed Canal Diversion Dam on the Umatilla River at Echo. It is also part of the Umatilla Project, providing irrigation water for 17,000 acres in the Columbia River area. All reservoir lands are managed as Cold Springs National Wildlife Refuge, which provides migratory water fowl habitat and is an IBA for waterfowl and songbird migration.

The Snake River enters the Columbia River and Lake Wallula from the northeast. Just upstream is Lake Sacajawea/Ice Harbor Lock and Dam (14), USACE, Washington (N46˚15’ W118˚52’). This 32-mile-long reservoir provides navigation on the lower Snake River and is just upstream from the Columbia River confluence. The dam contains fish ladders.

The Yakima River enters the Columbia River at Richland from the right bank and supports three Bureau of Reclamation Reservoirs in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe. Prosser Diversion Dam (15), Bureau of Reclamation, Washington (N46˚13’ W119˚46’) is the most downstream of the Yakima River projects. It diverts irrigation water to the Chandler Canal, which delivers water to the vicinity of Kennewick. Upstream at Parker, Sunnyside Diversion Dam (16), Bureau of Reclamation, Washington (N46˚30’ W120˚27’), diverts water to the Sunnyside Canal and provides irrigation water in the valley downstream to Benton City. Roza Diversion Dam (7), Bureau of Reclamation, Washington (N46˚45’ W120˚28’) is located on the Yakima River at Umtanum Water Gap NNL, ten miles north of Yakima, and provides irrigation water to the Yakima Project via the Roza Canal.

The now dry Grand Coulee and associated drainages cross the center of the Columbia Basin and now host a variety of irrigation facilities. North of Richland, the Potholes Canal drainage enters the Columbia River on the left bank. Scooteney Reservoir (17), Bureau of Reclamation, Washington (N46˚41’ W119˚2’) is part of the Columbia Project and stores irrigation water for delivery via the Potholes Canal. The reservoir is on Route 17 south of Othello. Water  is delivered to the Potholes Canal from Potholes Reservoir/O’Sullivan Dam (18), Bureau of Reclamation, Washington (N47˚0’ W119˚20’). Part of the Columbia Project, this reservoir south of I-90 collects irrigation return flows for use further south. The Potholes Canal extends 62 miles south from O’Sullivan Dam, passing Othello and feeding Scooteney Reservoir before ending at the Columbia River north of Richland. Potholes Reservoir is an IBA, as is the North Potholes Preserve, which is an area of wetlands. North Potholes is an IBA for pelicans, cormorants, herons, and egrets.

Billy Clapp Lake/Pinto Dam (19), Bureau of Reclamation, Washington (N 47˚28’ W119˚15’) is upstream from Potholes Reservoir. Part of the Columbia Project, irrigation water is diverted from Banks Lake via the Main Canal and stored in this reservoir on State Route 28 east of Ephrata. Reservoir lands are managed as the Billy Clapp Unit of the Columbia Basin State Wildlife Area.

The National Trail System in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe is represented by a national geologic trail and two historic trails. Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail, Idaho-Montana-Oregon-Washington commemorates the dramatic Columbia River floods. From 12,000 to 17,000 years ago, a series of cataclysmic floods occurred in the Columbia Basin, leaving a lasting and dramatic impact on the landscape of four states. When a lobe of an ice sheet blocked the Clarks Fork River at the Montana-Idaho line, a lake 200 miles long and 2,000 feet deep was created. This was Lake Missoula. Periodically, the ice dam broke, draining Lake Missoula in a matter of days. In the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe, these floods created the characteristic channeled scablands. The sparsely vegetated shrub-steppe of today makes these erosional features visible and contributes the dramatic feel, as the visitor imagines floodwaters in an area that is a desert today.

There are three sites on the Lewis and Clark NHT. Sacajawea State Park (20), Washington (N46˚12’ W119˚2’) is located at the confluence of the Snake and Columbia Rivers on Lake Wallula southeast of Pasco. This park contains the Sacajawea Interpretive Center. Hat Rock State Park (10), Oregon (N45˚55’ W119˚10’), is a distinctive 70-foot-high feature visible from the Columbia River noted by William Clark in his journal in 1805. The rock is a remnant of the catastrophic floods that scoured the Columbia Basin.  The park provides a reservoir recreation area on Wallula Lake on the Columbia River. Umatilla County’s ten-mile Lewis and Clark trail goes through the park and to the west along the reservoir.

Maryhill Museum of Art (8), Washington (N45˚41’ W120˚52’) is on State Route 14 west of U.S. Route 97 overlooking Lake Celilo in the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area. The museum contains an exhibit that interprets the trip down the Columbia River.

Oregon National Historic Trail includes six sites in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe. Fort Henrietta Park (21), City of Echo, Oregon (N45˚44’ W119˚12’) was a river crossing for the Oregon Trail and later the site of a fort from 1855 to 1856. Today it is located where Main Street (State Route 320) crosses the Umatilla River. The park also has a covered wagon and fire equipment museum.

Echo Meadows (21), BLM, Oregon (N45˚44’ W119˚19’) protects about a mile of trail ruts. A walking trail is accessible from State Route 320 five miles west of Echo.

Well Spring and Pioneer Cemetery (22), Naval Weapons Training Facility Boardman, Oregon (N45˚38’ W119˚43’) includes a small spring that was a source of water in the desert.

Fourmile Canyon (23), BLM, Oregon (N45˚37’ W120˚2’) is an area where several sets of trail ruts and several branches of the trail can be seen climbing the hill.

Biggs (24), Oregon (N45˚40’ W120˚50’), is the site where the trail descended to the Columbia River; about one mile of ruts is visible here above US Route 30.

Deschutes River Crossing (8), Oregon (N45˚38’ W120˚55’), was a dangerous river crossing for early emigrants, later replaced by a toll bridge.

There are two National Wild and Scenic River System segments in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe.   South of the Columbia River, the Crooked River, Chimney Rock Segment (25), BLM Prineville District, Oregon (N44˚10’ W120˚50’), is downstream from Arthur R. Bowman Dam and Prineville Reservoir.  The river flows through a scenic vertical basalt canyon with 600-foot cliffs along State Route 27 for 18 miles. Included is a three-mile trail to Chimney Rock.

The Lower Deschutes River (26), Oregon, is a whitewater rafting and sport fishing river designated as a wild and scenic river from Pelton Dam near Madras to the Columbia River, a distance of 173 miles. The lower 38 miles of the river are in the map area, and are accessible via Deschutes River Rail-Trail from the state park at I-84. The Macks Canyon archaeological site is the location of a winter village occupied by Sahaptin-speaking peoples, and consists of shallow circular house depressions and shell deposits.

One National Wilderness Area has been designated in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe. Juniper Dunes (27), BLM, Washington (N46˚23’ W118˚51’) is a 6,900-acre area accessible from private roads north of Pasco, Washington, off the Pasco-Kahlotus Road. Old growth western juniper trees grow amid sand dunes which are 130 feet in height.

The National Wildlife Refuge System in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe includes waterfowl refuges and a national monument. Cold Springs NWR (13), Oregon, is previously described under Cold Springs Reservoir. Columbia NWR (18), Washington (N46˚56’ W119˚14’), is downstream of Potholes Reservoir on Crab Creek between the reservoir and the Columbia River. This refuge is made possible by seepage from the Columbia Basin Irrigation Project, which has created lakes, sloughs, wet meadows, and marshes for waterfowl habitat. The area is an IBA for sandhill crane, rock wren, and northern harrier. The refuge includes Drumheller Channels NNL and ends at the confluence of Crab Creek with the Columbia River/Priest Rapids Reservoir, just upstream from Sentinel Gap, an ice age flood hydraulic restriction. Drumheller Channels are a stop on the refuge auto tour and the subject of interpretive trails.

Hanford Reach National Monument (3), Washington, is a 196,000-acre desert landscape surrounding the last free-flowing section of the Columbia River in Washington. The river is a Chinook salmon spawning area and is an IBA for 56 miles through the monument for bald eagles and waterfowl. The monument incorporates and expands the former Saddle Mountain NWR by the addition of DOE lands. North and east of the Columbia River is the Wahuluke Unit and former Saddle Mountain NWR (N46˚41’ W119˚39’). Southwest of Routes 240 and 24 is the Rattlesnake Unit, also known as the Fitzner-Eberhardt Arid Lands Ecology Reserve (N46˚27’ W119˚38’), which is used for research. The Rattlesnake Unit is an IBA for ferruginous hawk, long-billed curlew, and burrowing owl. The monument includes 21 islands in the Columbia River and is adjacent to the B-Reactor National Historic Landmark.

McNary NWR (20), Oregon-Washington, includes 15,000 acres on US 12-395 southeast of State Route 124. It was established as waterfowl habitat in mitigation for McNary Lock and Dam. The Two Rivers (N46˚8’ W118˚57’) and Peninsula (N46˚9’ W118˚58’) units are on US Route 12 south of Burbank. The Wallula unit (N46˚4’ W118˚54’) is at the junction of US Routes 730 and 12 and is part of the Walla Walla River Delta IBA. Burbank Slough (N46˚12’ W118˚57’) is south of the Snake River confluence.  The Juniper Canyon/Stateline Units are in Oregon (N45˚57’ W119˚1’). Up to half of the Pacific Flyway mallards use the refuge in winter, as do shorebirds and wading birds. The refuge also includes islands in the Columbia River used by nesting colonial waterbirds.

Toppenish NWR (28), Washington (N46˚19’ W120˚20’) is a migratory waterfowl refuge on US Route 97 south of Toppenish consisting of 12 parcels on Toppenish Creek, a tributary of the Yakima River. The refuge consists of wetlands, channels, and sloughs and is a waterfowl wintering area, along with breeding habitat for herons and. Toppenish Creek and the Yakima River oxbows area are an IBA.

Umatilla NWR (29), Oregon-Washington (N45˚54’ W119˚40’) is a 25,000-acre refuge established on Lake Umatilla as mitigation for construction of John Day Lock and Dam. It is located north of the junction of I-84 and US 730 and is known as a wintering area for Arctic-nesting geese. Other notable birds include long-billed curlew, burrowing owl, and gadwall. The area is an IBA for waterfowl and ducks. There are two Oregon units—McCormack and Boardman, and three Washington units—Patterson, Ridge, and Whitcomb. The McCormack unit has an auto tour route and trail. The refuge includes the shallow upper end of the reservoir and there are numerous small islands in the Columbia River.

Other federal sites in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe which are part of the conservation footprint are military facilities. Naval Weapons System Training Facility Boardman (22), Oregon (N45˚46’ W119˚41’) is a 47,000-acre area just south of the Columbia River. It an IBA for grasshopper sparrow, long-billed curlew, sage sparrow, ferruginous hawk, and burrowing owl. The native shrub-steppe habitat also supports a large group of Washington ground squirrel colonies and sagebrush lizard. The Nature Conservancy manages 5,000 acres under a cooperative management agreement and there are three designated research natural areas. The area also protects a ten-mile undisturbed portion of the original Oregon Trail. The Well Springs trail site is on the facility.

Yakima Training Center (30), Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington (N46˚41’ W120˚28’) is one of the largest remaining intact shrub-steppe habitats. The site is crossed by the Iron Horse State Park rail trail, also known as the John Wayne Pioneer Trail, and is an IBA for greater sage grouse.

Clark Pond, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington (N46˚31’ W118˚4’) is southwest of Mesa and managed as part of the Sunnyside-Snake River Wildlife Area by the state of Washington.

Douglas Creek, BLM, Washington (N47˚30’ W119˚56’) is a riparian area and bird watching area south of U.S. Route 2 on Road H.

Esquatzel Coulee, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington (N46˚36’ W118˚57’), on U.S. Route 395 north and west of Mesa, is managed as part of the Sunnyside-Snake River Wildlife Area by the state of Washington.

State and local sites in the Columbia Basin shrub-steppe include rail-trails at the Deschutes River, Iron Horse, and Columbia Plateau Trail state parks. These and other sites are listed below:

Billy Clapp Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N47˚29’ W119˚15’), surrounds Billy Clapp Lake.

Byron Unit, Sunnyside-Snake River Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚12’ W119˚54’) is a waterfowl and bird watching area four miles east of Mabton on Route 22.

Colockum Wildlife Area (31), Washington (N47˚8’ W120˚14’) is a 91,600-acre area is west of the Columbia River at Wanapum Lake and north of I-90 centered on Colockum Pass. It is an IBA for birds of prey, eagles, and songbirds.

Columbia Plateau Trail State Park, Washington is a developing rail-trail which will extend 130 miles from Pasco to Cheney. A future connection is proposed to Sacajawea State Park along the Snake River below Ice Harbor Dam. The south end begins at the Ice Harbor trailhead (N46˚17’ W118˚51’), then goes through Kahlotus (N46˚38’ W118˚33’), Washtucna (N46˚45’ W118˚19’), Benge (N46˚55’ W118˚6’), and Lamont (N47˚12’ W117˚55’) to Fish Lake trailhead (N47˚31’ W117˚31’) north of Cheney.

Cowiche Unit, Oak Creek Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚45’ W120˚47’) is a 7,000-acre area of mountainous shrub-steppe habitats along the South Fork Cowiche Creek and southward.  There are hiking trails including a portion of the William O. Douglas trail, and an elk feeding area for winter.

Deschutes River State Recreation Area (8), Oregon (N45˚38’ W120˚55’) is at the confluence of the Deschutes and Columbia Rivers. A 32-mile-long rail trail follows the Deschutes wild and scenic river.

Desert Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚59’ W119˚34’) is located west of Potholes Reservoir and collects irrigation water to create wetlands.

Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park (2), Washington (N46˚57’ W120˚0’), in addition to being a NNL, also contains reservoir recreation facilities on Lake Wanapum at the Columbia River bridge on I-90.

Gloyd Seeps Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N47˚17’ W119˚20’) are a collection of wetlands and seeps north of Moses Lake.

Goose Lakes Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚56’ W119˚17’) is two lakes formed by irrigation return seepage and is part of the Drumheller Channels NNL.

Hat Rock State Park (10), Oregon, is a site on the Lewis and Clark NHT (see).

Headquarters Unit, Sunnyside-Snake River Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚15’ W120˚3’) is on the north side of the Yakima River south of Sunnyside and consists of old river oxbows and wetland habitat for waterfowl, along with riparian forests.

Iron Horse State Park, Washington, is a rail-trail also known as the John Wayne Pioneer Trail. It extends from Cedar Falls (south of North Bend near Seattle) to Beverly Junction (N46˚49’ W119˚57’) on the Columbia River, passing South Clay Elum (N47˚12’ W120˚56’), Thorp (N47˚3’ W120˚40’), Ellensburg (N47˚0’ W120˚33’), Kittitas (N46˚59’ W120˚25’), and Army West (N46˚57’ W120˚18’) trailheads. Future extensions will be to the Idaho border at Tekoa.

Lincoln Rock State Park, (32), Washington (N47˚33’ W120˚18’) is a basalt outcropping overlooking the Columbia River four miles north of Wenatchee on US 97 at Rocky Reach Dam/Lake Entiat.

Lower Crab Creek Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚50’ W119˚48’) is south of Route 26 and east of Wanapum Dam .  It provides habitat for sandhill crane and ferruginous hawk.  A native black greasewood and saltgrass community is a state natural area preserve.

Maryhill State Park (8), Washington (N45˚41’ W120˚50’) is a river recreation park on the Columbia River/Lake Celilo at the US 97 bridge. Near the park are a Stonehenge reconstruction and the Maryhill Museum of Art.

L.T. Murray Wildlife Area (33), Washington, is a 100,000-acre area in three sections. Two sections north of I-90 and west of the Columbia River, Quilomene and Whiskey Dick, provide shrub-steppe habitat. The Quilomene Unit (N47˚5’ W120˚10’) is an IBA for raptors.

Oak Creek Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚39’ W120˚47’), Oak Creek Unit, is a 46,000-acre area surrounding the intersection of U.S. Route 12 and State Route 410 northwest of Yakima.  Areas along the Naches and Tieton Rivers are rock climbing and wildlife watching areas.

Olmstead Place State Park (34), Washington (N46˚59’ W120˚28’) is in the Kittitas Valley four miles east of Ellensburg. This park is a working pioneer farm, one of the first homesteads in the valley.

Potholes State Park (18), Washington (N47˚0’ W119˚20’), is a reservoir recreation area on Potholes Reservoir. In the desert, there are freshwater marshes, sand dunes, and canyons.

Potholes Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N47˚3’ W119˚24’) overlays Bureau of Reclamation reservoir lands and consists of active sand dune and shrub-steppe habitat.  Notable wildlife is bald eagle, mule deer, and northern leopard frog.  Potholes Reservoir is an IBA, as is the North Potholes Preserve, which is an area of wetlands. North Potholes is an IBA for pelicans, cormorants, herons, and egrets.

Priest Rapids Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington.  This area consists of two units, one at a slough on the east side (left bank) of Priest Rapids Reservoir near Mattawa (N46˚45’ W119˚58’) and Goose Island (N46˚40’ W119˚55’), in the middle of the Columbia River upstream of the dam.

Quincy Lakes Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N47˚9’ W119˚58’) is on the left bank of the Columbia River at Wanapum Lake and includes Babcock Bench, Potholes Coulee, and Frenchman Coulee.  There are 800-foot cliffs, mesas, benches, box canyons, and potholes amid the sage shrub-steppe.

Rattlesnake Slope Unit, Sunnyside-Snake River Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚22’ W119˚31’) is a grass-covered mountainside overlooking the Yakima River along State Route 225 north of Benton City and south of Hanford Reach National Monument.

Sacajawea State Park (20), Washington (N46˚12’ W119˚3’) is at the confluence of the Snake and Columbia Rivers on Lake Wallula southeast of Pasco. This park contains the Sacajawea Interpretive Center.

Seep Lakes Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N46˚56’ W119˚11’) is east of the Potholes Canal and Columbia NWR and consists of basalt cliffs, mesas, box canyons and potholes in a channeled scabland area.

Sprague Lake Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N47˚16’ W118˚4’) is between Exits 231 and 245 on I-90 and protects wetlands with birds of prey and songbirds.

Sun Lakes/Dry Falls State Park (5), Washington, (N47˚36’ W119˚22’) is one of the great geological wonders of North America. A 400-foot dry waterfall is 3.5 miles wide, plunging into a number of lakes. The falls were created during an ice age flood.  The park is part of the Grand Coulee NNL.

Sun Lakes Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington.  Lower Grand Coulee downstream from Dry Falls and north of Soap Lake is included in this state-managed area.  The area includes Lake Lenore Caves (N47˚30’ W119˚30’) on State Route 17, which are a series of seven caves formed when floods plucked basalt boulders out of the coulee wall.

Wanaket Wildlife Area (10), Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, Oregon (N45˚55’ W119˚15’) is marsh habitat is located on both sides of US Route 730 two miles east of the intersection with US Route 395 near Umatilla. It was acquired by the Bonneville Power Administration as mitigation for McNary Dam.

Wenatchee Confluence State Park (35), Washington (N47˚27’ W120˚20’), is at the confluence of the Wenatchee and Columbia Rivers, supporting wetlands and trails in the Horan Natural Area.

Winchester Reservoir Unit, Columbia Basin Wildlife Area, Washington (N47˚8’ W119˚38’) is north of I-90 and reached by traveling west from Exit 164.  This shallow reservoir collects irrigation drainage and provides wetland habitat for waterfowl and shorebirds.

Yakima Sportsman State Park (36), Washington (N46˚35’ W120˚27’) is three miles south of Yakima and has wetlands in the floodplain of the river in an otherwise desert area.

Private sites of note in the Columbia Basin shrub steppe include three nature conservancy preserves.  Beezley Hills Preserve (37), the Nature Conservancy, Washington (N 47˚19’ W119˚48’) is north of Quincy in the Beezley Hills. There is shrub-steppe habitat and a trail to Monument Hill.

Boardman Conservation Area (22), The Nature Conservancy, Oregon, contains a 22,600-acre-portion of Threemile Canyon Farms  set aside under a Multi-Species Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances (FWS) for protection of Washington ground squirrel, ferruginous hawk, loggerhead shrike, and sage grouse. There are seven globally rare grassland habitat types.

Moses Coulee Preserve, the Nature Conservancy, Washington (N47˚39’ W119˚40’) protects part of Moses Coulee NNL.

References

Hooper, Peter R. The Columbia River Basalts. Science 215:1463-1468.

Montgomery, David R. 2012. Biblical-Type Floods Are Real, and They’re Absolutely Enormous.  Discover, July-August. Accessed September 21, 2013 at http://discovermagazine.com/2012/jul-aug/06-biblical-type-floods-real-absolutely-enormous

The highest density of nesting raptors, thousand-foot-deep canyons, and a tall sand dune

States and Coordinates: Idaho-Nevada-Oregon, 41˚ to 45˚ North, 114˚ to 118˚ West

There are several distinct areas of the shrub-steppe ecoregion of the Columbia Plateau. For the purposes of this discussion, the ecoregion is subdivided into four sections, based on biological or geographic criteria. The first area, the Upper Snake River Plain, was discussed in Part I.

The second area is the Treasure Valley and Owyhee Plateau, the subject of this article. The Treasure Valley towns such as Boise, Nampa, Caldwell, Emmett, Ontario, and Weiser were settled around irrigated cropland, made possible by the numerous federal reservoirs and the water supply provided by the Snake, Boise, Payette, Owyhee, and Malheur Rivers. One unique community is the town of New Plymouth (1), N43˚58’ W116˚49’, which was established in 1895 along the Payette River. This was a planned community developed by the Plymouth Society of Chicago. Purchasers of shares were entitled to 20 acres and a town lot. The two town streets were developed in a horseshoe shape and separated by an 80-foot-wide park. The town plan is still evident today.

Surrounding the valleys are semiarid uplands and foothills which include such areas as the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area (NCA)(2), areas around Mountain Home, and the Mount Bennett Hills and Picabo Hills. To the north of the Mount Bennett Hills is the unique Camas Prairie, an area of meadows and wetlands to the south of the Sawtooth Range in the vicinity of Fairfield and along US Route 20.

The area around Mountain Home was originally sagebrush steppe, but many sites are being invaded by cheatgrass. The sagebrush-perennial grassland ecosystem is being lost due to wildfire, heavy grazing, and perhaps other disturbances. In the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey NCA, shrublands in 1979 covered 51 percent of the area. Within 20 years, about half of the shrublands were lost, mostly due to fire.  Once cheatgrass is established, it feeds continuous fires that destroy more shrublands. Natural recovery of shrubland will be slow because of the arid conditions. This affects other wildlife as well. For example, blacktailed jackrabbits are associated with shrublands. Golden eagles prefer to eat jackrabbits, and the decline in prey will cause a reduction in the ability of the area to support golden eagles. Numbers of prairie falcons may also be affected. These birds eat ground squirrels. Up to five percent of the world’s population of Piute ground squirrels is found on the NCA, and the ground squirrels also are affected by broad-scale change to annual grassland (Sullivan 2005).

To the south and west of the Treasure Valley are the Owyhee Uplands, a high lava plateau which drains into the Snake River and covers most of southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon. Precipitous canyons of the Bruneau, Owyhee, Malheur, and Salmon Falls Creek cut through the uplands in places. The canyons are riddled with caves in many of the walls. Scattered volcanic buttes and cones rise out of the lava plains. The plateau is covered with semiarid vegetation such as sagebrush and grassland, but the Silver City Range rises above 6,500 feet in elevation and supports forests.

The volcanism that created the Owyhee Uplands created copious quantities of volcanic ash which blanketed the area periodically. Lava blocked creeks and created lakes and marshes. Volcanic ash then settled in the lakes, providing nutrients which promoted diatoms and algal blooms. These fell to the bottom and were deposited as siltstone and shale. Plant leaves, fruit, and flowers were deposited in these lakes and preserved as exquisite fossils due to the fine-grained sediments of the volcanic ash. The Succor Creek fossil flora, found in shale formed from volcanic ash in the Owyhee Uplands in Idaho and Oregon, is the largest Tertiary-period (15 million years ago) plant assemblage known from North America, with 160 species identified. Plants at that time were temperate with warm-temperate evergreens in lowlands. Shortly after this, the climate was in transition to a dryer, cooler one and eventually to the shrub-steppe seen today (Graham 2011).

There is one National Historic Landmark in theTreasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau. The Old US Assay Office, Idaho Historical Society, Boise, Idaho (N43˚37’ W116˚12’) was built in the 1870s to serve gold miners on the Clearwater, Wood, and Salmon Rivers and in the Boise Basin. By 1917, Idaho gold mines had yielded $400 million in gold. The office operated until 1933 and is today home of the State Historic Preservation Officer for Idaho.

There is one National Natural Landmark in theTreasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau. Crater Rings (3), part of the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area, Idaho (N43˚9’ W115˚48’) are two adjacent pit craters, volcanic conduits which formed when rising lava came into contact with groundwater and exploded.

There are three National Forest areas in the Treasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau. The Boise National Forest, Idaho, includes the arid southern portion of the Idaho Batholith. The southern portion of this 2.6 million-acre forest, including the Danskin Mountains, extends into the Snake-Columbia shrub-steppe.   On the north slope of the Danskin Mountains overlooking the South Fork Boise River canyon is the Raspberry Gulch Research Natural Area (N43˚28’ W115˚40’).  This is a transition area at the forest-shrub steppe interface.  Elk Creek Exclosure Research Natural Area (N43˚37’ W115˚43’) is also a site in the shrub-steppe.  This area east of Arrowrock Reservoir is excluded from grazing animals for research purposes. The Ridge-to-Rivers Trail System is administered jointly with the City of Boise and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), providing 130 miles of trails from Shafer Butte south to Lucky Peak Reservoir.  The forest also administers recreation areas along the Lucky Peak Reservoir and Anderson Ranch Reservoir within the ecoregion. Trinity Mountain Recreation Area is within the forest north of Mountain Home, Idaho, and provides lakes and wildflowers in mountain meadows. The Boise Ridge (4), extending from Lucky Peak (N43˚36’ W116˚4’) on the south to Hawley Mountain (N44˚0’ W116˚2’) on the north, is an IBA for migrating raptors.

A portion of the 2.5-million-acre Humboldt National Forest, Nevada, in the Santa Rosa Mountains and Jarbridge Mountains, extends into the Snake-Columbia shrub-steppe. See the Great Basin shrub-steppe ecoregion for a more complete description of this national forest area.

A portion of the 1.7-million-acre Sawtooth National Forest, Idaho, in the Soldier Mountains between Hill City and Ketchum, south of the South Fork Boise River, extends into the Snake-Columbia shrub-steppe ecoregion.

The National Landscape Conservation System in the Treasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau is represented by wilderness areas and wild and scenic rivers. Wilderness areas and units in the national wild and scenic river system are described separately below.  In addition, the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey NCA, Idaho (2), is a 485,000-acre area protecting America’s highest density of nesting raptors, including prairie falcon, kestrel, golden eagle, harriers, ospreys, and owls. There are 15 nesting species and an additional ten migratory species. The mostly rolling area is punctuated by the Snake River canyons and a series of flat-topped buttes. The Crater Rings NNL (see) is within the NCA, as is Swan Falls Reservoir (N43˚15’ W116˚23’), C.J. Strike Reservoir (N42˚58’ W115˚55’), Bruneau Dunes State Park (N42˚53’ W115˚42’) , and the Idaho National Guard Orchard Training Area (N43˚16’ W116˚11’), which has the Higby Cave archaeological site. Celebration County Park (N43˚18’ W116˚31’), at the west edge of the NCA on the Snake River, is a good viewing area.  Kuna Cave (N43˚25’ W116˚27’) is a lava tube south of Kuna.  The Oregon Trail south alternate route crosses the area near Henderson Flats and Wild Horse Butte (N43˚8’ W116˚20’) and in the area of C.J. Strike Reservoir.  The Idaho Centennial Trail crosses the southeastern portion of the NCA east of Bruneau Dunes State Park.  Some of the buttes include Kuna Butte (N43˚26’ W116˚27’), Coyote Butte (N43˚20’ W116˚-22’), Guffey Butte (N43˚17’ W16˚33’), Wild Horse Butte (N43˚8’ W116˚20’), Castle Butte (N43˚6’ W116˚17’), Jackass Buttes (N43˚5’ W116˚13’), Black Butte (N43˚5’ W116˚11’), Big Foot Butte (N43˚12’ W116˚13’), Cinder Cone Butte (N43˚13’ W116˚0’).  The Chalk Flat area (N42˚59’ W115˚33’) along I-84 is also within the NCA.

Recreation lakes in the Treasure Valley and Owyhee Plateau were built for irrigation, recreation, and hydropower purposes.  On the Snake River are three Idaho Power Reservoirs. Bliss Dam(5), Idaho Power, Idaho (N42˚55’ W115˚4’), is located on the Snake River six miles west of Bliss. C.J. Strike Dam and Reservoir, Idaho Power, Idaho (N42˚57’ W115˚57’) is located on the Snake River ten miles west of Bruneau on State Route 78. Idaho Power manages its reservoir lands with the state as a wildlife management area. On the north side of the Bruneau Creek embayment is a remnant Oregon Trail segment. Swan Falls Dam, Idaho Power, Idaho (N43˚15’ W116˚23’) is located on Swan Falls Road 17 miles south of Kuna. It is the oldest hydroelectric dam in Idaho, dating to 1901. Both C.J. Strike and Swan Falls Reservoirs are within the NCA. The backwaters of Brownlee Reservoir in the Blue Mountains ecoregion also extend into the Snake River shrub-steppe near Huntington, Oregon.

In the Salmon Falls Creek canyon south of Twin Falls is Salmon Falls Creek Reservoir(6), BLM, Idaho (N42˚12’ W114˚44’).  Lud Trexler Park is a reservoir recreation area on this irrigation reservoir near Jackpot, Nevada.

There are three reservoirs in the Mount Bennett Hills-Camas Prairie area, which are in the Big Wood River watershed. Mormon Reservoir (7), Twin Lakes Reservoir and Irrigation Company, Ltd., Idaho (N43˚15’ W114˚49’) is in the Camas Prairie and is an IBA for nesting shorebirds and gulls. Magic Reservoir (8), Magic Reservoir Hydroelectric, Inc., Idaho, (N43˚15’ W114˚21’) is on the Big Wood River on US 20 east of Fairfield. It is an IBA for gulls, terns, long-billed curlew, trumpeter and tundra swans.  Thorn Creek Reservoir, BLM, Idaho ( N43˚12’ W114˚36’) is a reservoir recreation site is in the Mount Bennett Hills north of Gooding off of Route 46.

On the Boise River are four federal reservoirs. Anderson Ranch Reservoir (9), Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho (N43˚23’ W115˚25’) is on the South Fork of the Boise River. It provides irrigation for the Arrowrock Division of the Boise Project. The Boise and Sawtooth National Forests manage Anderson Ranch Reservoir recreation areas. Arrowrock Reservoir (10), Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho (N43˚36’ W115˚55’), is located on the Boise River in the Boise National Forest. It stores irrigation water for the Boise project. Lucky Peak Reservoir(11), US Army Corps of Engineers, Idaho (N43˚32’ W116˚2’) is operated in conjunction with the Bureau of Reclamation’s Boise project irrigation lakes. The Boise River IBA and Boise Greenbelt extends downstream from the reservoir to Garden City.

The Boise River Diversion Dam (11), Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho (N43˚32’ W116˚6’), is seven miles upstream from Boise. This dam diverts water to Lake Lowell and the New York Canal for irrigation. The Boise River IBA extends from Lucky Peak Dam to Garden City including this area and is an IBA for bald eagles, waterfowl, and colonial nesting birds.

Two dams store water from the Boise River for irrigation use. Hubbard Dam (12), Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho (N43˚31’ W116˚21’), is 12 miles southwest of Boise and stores water from the New York Canal. Lake Lowell (13),Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho (N43˚35’ W116˚43’), also stores irrigation water from the Boise River and is an artificial reservoir in a low spot surrounded by three dikes.  Surrounding lands are managed as Deer Flat National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), described below.

Blacks Creek Reservoir (12), BLM, Idaho (N43˚28’ W116˚9’), is also in the Boise River watershed and is located at I-84 exit 64.  This small reservoir has mudflats used by waterfowl and shorebirds and is an IBA.

On the Owyhee River is Owyhee Reservoir (14), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N43˚38’ W117˚15’). This irrigation storage lake diverts water to two irrigation canals along the Snake River, providing water for 105,000 acres. Construction of Owyhee Dam was a proving ground for later construction of Hoover Dam in Arizona-Nevada. Water is diverted into a tunnel and exits three miles north of the dam. From this point, the North Canal extends 61.5 miles north to the Snake River, crossing the Owyhee and Malheur Rivers before joining the Snake River downstream from Weiser, Idaho. A second tunnel conveys water to the South Canal, which in turn conveys water east to the Snake River near Homedale, Idaho. Lake Owyhee State Park provides recreation on the 35-mile-long reservoir. Leslie Gulch (N43˚19’ W117˚18’) and Runaway Gulch on the south end of the reservoir make up a BLM recreation area noted for volcanic ash tuff formations.

Antelope Reservoir (15), Jordan Valley Irrigation District, Oregon (N42˚54’ W117˚14’), is on US 95 south of Jordan Valley. This irrigation storage and hydroelectric reservoir is on Jack Creek, a tributary to the Owyhee River in Oregon; reservoir recreation is managed by the BLM.

On the Malheur River and tributaries are four federal reservoirs in the Snake-Columbia shrub-steppe.  Beulah Reservoir and Agency Valley Dam (16), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N43˚56’ W118˚9’), on the North Fork of the Malheur River, is an irrigation storage reservoir and part of the Vale Project. It is fed by hot springs in the upper end of the lake. Recreation is managed by Malheur County. Warm Springs Reservoir (17), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N43˚36’ W118˚14’) is on the Middle Fork of the Malheur River 13 miles southwest of Juntura; this facility stores water from the Malheur River for release to the Harper Diversion Dam and Vale Canal. The reservoir attracts migratory waterfowl. Harper Diversion Dam (18), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N43˚47’ W117˚45’) is on the Malheur River 20 miles upstream from Vale. Water is diverted into the Vale Canal, which extends 74 miles to Jamieson.  Bully Creek Reservoir, Dam, and Diversion Dam (19), Bureau of Reclamation, Oregon (N44˚1’ W117˚24’) is nine miles northwest of Vale and is an irrigation storage reservoir in the Vale Project. The reservoir attracts migratory waterfowl. Recreation is managed by Malheur County.

On the Payette River in the Snake-Columbia shrub-steppe is the Black Canyon Diversion Dam (20), Bureau of Reclamation, Idaho  (N43˚55’ W116˚25’). Located on the Payette River at Emmett, this project diverts irrigation water as part of the Payette Division of the Boise Project

The National Trail System in theTreasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau is represented by the Oregon National Historic Trail and two national recreation trails (NRTs).  The following are Oregon National Historic Trail sites.

Main Route

• Three Island Crossing State Park (21), Idaho  (N42˚56’ W115˚20’), is at Exit 120 on I-84 at Glenns Ferry. This historic river ford contains wagon ruts. Crossing the Snake River was risky, and emigrants risked losing all their livestock and supplies if things were deeper than expected or a wagon wheel dropped into a hole. An alternate Oregon Trail (South Alternate Route) continued on the south side of the Snake River to avoid this risk. The three islands are visible just downstream from the state park. An Oregon Trail History and Education Center is at the park.  The south side preserves a section of the trail as it descended to the river.

North Alternate Route

• Teapot Dome Hot Springs, Idaho (N43˚9’ W115˚30’) were along the Oregon Trail as it followed the Hot Springs Creek.  The springs are now dry due to irrigation diversions.
• Rattlesnake Station, Idaho (N43˚12’ W115˚33’) was located at the crossing of present-day US Route 20 on Rattlesnake Creek at the base of a mountain; this was later a stage station stop in the 1870s.
• Canyon Creek Station, Idaho (N43˚16’ W115˚42’), was at a creek crossing providing lush green grass and water for Oregon Trail travelers; a stage station was built here in 1873.
• Ditto Station, Idaho (N43˚21’ W115˚49’)
• Indian Creek Station, Idaho (N43˚25’ W115˚54’)
• At Bonneville Point (11), BLM, Idaho (N43˚30’ W116˚2’), travelers were rewarded with a panoramic view of the Treasure Valley. It is accessible from Exit 64 on I-84. A mountain bike trail connects with the Boise Greenbelt.
• Oregon Trail Historic Reserve, BLM, Idaho (N43˚33’ W116˚8’), overlooks Boise and contains segments of the original Oregon Trail ruts and trails.
• Ward Massacre Park (22), Canyon County, Idaho (N43˚41’ W116˚37’) was the site of an Indian attack on a 20-member Oregon Trail party in 1854; two children were survivors. The site is two miles south of Middleton and one mile north of US 20-26 on Lincoln Road off of Middleton Road.
• Canyon Hill Ruts, Caldwell, Idaho (N43˚41’ W116˚41’)
• Fort Boise (23), Fort Boise Wildlife Management Area, Idaho (N43˚49’ W117˚1’) was constructed in 1834 by Hudson’s Bay Company at the confluence of the Boise and Snake Rivers; the fort was abandoned in 1844 due to flooding. A current structure in Parma is a replica.

South Alternate Route

• Bruneau Dunes State Park, Idaho (N42˚54’ W115˚42’) was a landmark along the South Alternate Route.
• C.J. Strike Ruts, Idaho (N42˚57’ W115˚56’) are within the C.J.Strike Wildlife Management Area. Trail ruts are on the north side of the Bruneau Creek arm of the reservoir.
• Utter Disaster Site, Idaho (N43˚7’ W116˚18’) was the site of the greatest loss of life on the Oregon Trail in 1860. A two-day encounter with Indians resulted in a loss of 11 emigrants and 30 Indians. The emigrant survivors escaped without their supplies and walked 75 miles downriver to the Owyhee River junction. While awaiting rescue, other emigrants died of starvation or other Indian attacks. The site is at Henderson Flats, four miles north of State Route 78 on Wees Road in the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey NCA.
• Sinker Creek Segment, Idaho (N46˚9’ W116˚25’), is west of Henderson Flats and east of Murphy.  This intact trail segment crosses the NCA.
• Givens Hot Springs (26), Idaho (N43˚25’ W116˚42’), is a commercially operated park on State Route 78. It was a minor landmark along the South Alternate Route. The spring area was homesteaded in 1881 and is still owned by the same family.

Main Route

• Captain Keeney Pass (24), BLM, Oregon (N43˚55’ W117˚11’), is a 3,000-foot elevation pass south of Vale on the divide between the Owyhee River and Malheur River. Trail swales can still be seen.
• Alkalai Springs Segment, Oregon (N44˚7’ W117˚14’) is between Vale and Farewell Bend State Recreation Area.  It is a remnant segment of the trail that can be visited.
• Farewell Bend State Recreation Area (25), Oregon (N44˚18’ W117˚14’), is where the trail left the Snake River and began the crossing of the more well-watered Blue Mountains.

Two NRTs are in the Treasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau area. Hulls Gulch Interpretive Trail, BLM, Idaho (N43˚39’ W116˚9’), is six miles north of Boise on 8^th Street Road; this three mile loop trail descends to a waterfall and riparian area in a sagebrush-steppe habitat. Weiser River NRT (26), Friends of the Weiser River Trail, Idaho, is an 85-mile rail trail owned and managed by a friends group.  It begins in the south at Weiser (N44˚15’ W116˚57’), continues to Rebecca (N44˚15’ W116˚51’) and Presley (N44˚16’ W116˚46’), and then continues north through desert canyons to forests in the Blue Mountains. The northern end is at Rubicon on US Route 95 four miles west of New Meadows in the Blue Mountains.

The National Wild and Scenic River System is extensively represented in the Owyhee Plateau. The Bruneau River, West Fork Bruneau River, Jarbridge River, and Sheep Creek are described under the Bruneau-Jarbridge Rivers Wilderness. Big Jacks Creek, Cottonwood Creek, Duncan Creek and Wickahoney Creek are described under the Big Jacks Creek Wilderness. Little Jacks Creek is described under the Little Jacks Creek Wilderness. Battle Creek, Deep Creek, Dickshooter Creek, Red Canyon, and South Fork Owyhee River are described under the Owyhee River Wilderness.

The Owyhee River, BLM, Idaho-Oregon, includes 67 miles in Idaho (see Owyhee River Wilderness) and 120 miles in two segments in Oregon. The Oregon segments are all in the Owyhee River canyon upstream from Owyhee Reservoir (N43˚18’ W117˚29’) and include Wrangler Basin, The Hole in the Ground, Lambert Rocks Lava Flow, and Crooked Creek (N42˚53’ W117˚42’) in the lower segment. The upper segment begins at China Gulch (N42˚49’ W117˚37’) and includes Soldier Creek, Skull Creek, Dreary Pasture, Three Forks, Big Antelope Canyon, West Little Owyhee River, and Beaver Charlie Breaks (N42˚22’ W117˚3’).  Soldier Creek Road is a 28-mile road that provides overlooks into the Owyhee River Canyon between Antelope Reservoir and Three Forks of the Owyhee.

The North Fork Owyhee River, BLM, Idaho-Oregon, includes 20.8 miles designated in Idaho and 9.6 miles designated in Oregon. For the Idaho section see North Fork Owyhee Wilderness. The Oregon section  begins at the Owyhee confluence (N42˚33’ W117˚10’) and includes Three Forks, Cherry Creek side canyon, and Squaw Creek side canyon (N42˚34’ W117˚3’).

The West Little Owyhee River (27), BLM, Oregon, river designation includes the entire river from headwaters east of Route 93 on the Fort McDermitt Indian Reservation at N42˚6’ W117˚34’ downstream to the confluence with the Owyhee at N42˚27’ W117˚13’, a distance of 57.6 miles. This is all in Louse Canyon. The Oregon Desert Trail follows the river.

There are six Wilderness Areas in the Owyhee Plateau of Idaho. The Bruneau-Jarbridge Rivers Wilderness (28), BLM, Idaho, is a 90,000-acre wilderness of river canyons with rock spires and volcanic cliffs. The boundaries mostly follow river canyons. Many of the river canyons are lined with caves and natural arches. Four river segments within the wilderness are also designated Wild Rivers. The Idaho Centennial Trail parallels the eastern side of the wilderness from Murphy Hot Springs to its north end.  The wilderness includes the following features:

• Bruneau Canyon from mile 20.6 near Indian Bath Tub (N42˚45’ W115˚44’) upstream to Cedar Tree Trail Lakes, five miles past the Jarbridge River (N42˚16’ W115˚42’; at the Jarbridge some maps call it West Fork Bruneau upstream); 39 miles of the Bruneau and 0.4 miles of the West Fork at Indian Hot Springs N42˚20’ W115˚39’ are a Wild River
• Miller Water Canyon (N42˚38’ W115˚42’, Bruneau River mile 31.5L) upstream for three miles
• East Fork Canyon/Clover Fork (N42˚35’ W115˚36’, mile 37.5 R Bruneau River) from the Bruneau River upstream seven miles to Winter Camp
• Sheep Creek from mile 46L on the Bruneau River upstream 25.6 miles to near James Place (N42˚17’ W115˚46’); all 25.6 miles are a Wild River; the canyon walls are noted for numerous caves and a natural arch
• Blackstone Desert (N42˚29’ W115˚37’)
• J-P Point overlooking the Bruneau River (N42˚27’ W115˚37’)
• Louse Creek from Sheep Creek upstream three miles (N42˚24’ W115˚47’)
• Bighorn Country (N42˚23’ W115˚45’) on Sheep Creek
• Mary’s River upstream three miles from Sheep Creek (N42˚19’ W115˚48’)
• Cave Draw on the Bruneau River (N42˚26’ W115˚38’)
• Stiff Tree Draw on Bruneau River (N42˚24’ W115˚37’)
• Jarbridge River from the confluence with the Bruneau  at mile 49R (N42˚20’ W115˚39’) upstream 28.8 miles to Murphy Hot Springs (N42˚3’ W115˚23’); all 28.8 miles are a Wild River; the canyon has numerous caves in the walls
• Poison Creek (N42˚15’ W115˚31’) from Jarbridge River Mile 8.5R upstream two miles
• Arch Canyon (N42˚13’ W115˚33’) from the Jarbridge River mile 10L upstream for seven miles
• Arch Table (N42˚10’ W115˚31’) on the Jarbridge River
• Dorsey Creek (N42˚7’ W115˚30’) from Jarbridge River mile 17.5L upstream for two miles
• Columbet Table (N42˚3’ W115˚25’) on the Jarbridge River
• Hot Springs Bench (N42˚19’ W115˚41’) on the Bruneau River
• Cedar Tree Trail Lakes (N42˚16’ W115˚41’) on the Bruneau River

Big Jacks Creek Wilderness (29), BLM, Idaho, is a 53,000-acre sagebrush-covered 600-foot-deep canyon.  Wild River segments include Big Jacks Creek (35 miles, all within the wilderness; south end N42˚30’ W116˚12’; north end N42˚45’ W116˚0’), Cottonwood Creek (N42˚32’ W116˚5’, 2.6 miles from Big Jacks Creek upstream to the wilderness boundary), Duncan Creek (N42˚33’ W116˚1’, 0.9 miles upstream from confluence with Big Jacks Creek), and Wickahoney Creek (N42˚34’ W116˚0’, 1.5 miles upstream from confluence with Big Jacks Creek).  Other features are Willies Canyon and Point (N42˚33’ W116˚7’), Harvey Point (N42˚32’ W116˚5’), Dry Canyon (N42˚32’ W116˚6’), Hill Pasture (N42˚33’ W116˚3’), Zeno Canyon (N42˚30’ W116˚4’), and The Island (N42˚29’ W116˚3’).

Little Jacks Creek Wilderness (30), BLM, Idaho, is a 51,000-acre sagebrush-covered basalt dome with canyons 1,000 feet deep.  Features are Horse Basin (N42˚41’ W116˚6’), Rattlesnake Creek (N42˚39’ W116˚7’), The Hat (N42˚36’ W116˚12’), and Perjue Canyon -Between the Creeks (N42˚45’ W116˚14’).  Little Jacks Creek is a Wild River for 12.4 miles from O X Prong (N42˚39′ W116˚15’) downstream to the wilderness boundary (N42˚43’ W116˚7’).

Owyhee River Wilderness (31), BLM, Idaho, is a 267,300-acre wilderness which includes the Grand Canyon of the Owyhee and tributaries from the Oregon state line upriver to the Duck Valley Indian Reservation. The wilderness is part of the Owyhee Uplands IBA for green-tailed towhee, ferruginous hawk, and black-throated grey warbler. Plateau areas in addition to canyon areas are included; the plateaus feature fields of lupine and bighorn sheep.  Six of the canyons are designated Wild Rivers. Features include:

• Owyhee River from the Oregon State line at N42˚19’ W117˚2’, 67.3 miles upstream to the Duck River Indian Reservation boundary at N42˚6’ W116˚24’; the entire 67.3 miles are a Wild River
• Cavieta Hill at N42˚21’ W117˚1’
• Dukes Creek (N42˚19’ W116˚59’) from the right bank Owyhee River upstream to its headwaters
• Bald Mountain Canyon (N42˚19’ W116˚56’), from the confluence on the right bank Owyhee River upstream to its headwaters
• South Fork Owyhee, a 500-foot deep canyon on the left bank of the Owyhee River at N42˚16’ W116˚53’ extending 31.4 miles upstream to Nevada State line at N42˚0’ W116˚43’; all 31.4 miles are a Wild River
• Juniper Basin at N42˚15’ W116˚55’on South Fork Owyhee, left bank
• Spring Creek Basin at N42˚11’ W116˚55’ on South Fork Owyhee, left bank
• Little Owyhee River from confluence with South Fork Owyhee, left bank at N42˚10’ W116˚52’ upstream nine miles to Star Valley at N42˚2’ W116˚57’
• Halogeton Flat at N42˚7’ W116˚53’ on Little Owyhee River, right bank
• Grassy Ridge (N42˚10’ W116˚49’) on South Fork Owyhee, right bank
• Bull Camp Butte (N42˚0’ W116˚41’) on South Fork Owyhee, right bank
• Red Canyon (N42˚19’ W116˚51’) on Owyhee River, right bank; 4.6 miles are a Wild River
• Petes Creek (N42˚20’ W116˚53’) from Red Canyon upstream to Bull Basin
• The Tongue (N42˚17’ W116˚51’) on Red Canyon, left bank
• Red Basin Creek (N42˚20’ W116˚49’) on Owyhee River right bank
• Ryan Pasture (N42˚16’ W116˚48’) on Owyhee River left bank
• Cherry Gulch and the Dome (N42˚15’ W116˚42’) on Owyhee River right bank
• Porcupine Creek (N42˚18’ W116˚41’) on Owyhee River right bank
• Deep Creek, a vertical-walled canyon beginning at the Owyhee River right bank (N42˚16’ W116˚39’) and extending upstream for 13.1 miles; all 13.1 miles are a Wild River
• White Cow Basin (N42˚18’ W116˚39’) on Deep Creek right bank
• Sheep Hills (N42˚19’ W116˚39’) on Deep Creek right bank
• Dickshooter Creek/Black Canyon, from left bank Deep Creek confluence at N42˚20’ W116˚37’ upstream for 11 miles to N42˚23’ W116˚33’; 9.3 miles are a Wild River
• Dickshooter Ridge (N42˚18’ W116˚34’) on right bank Owyhee River
• Piute Creek (N42˚14’ W116˚38’) on left bank Owyhee River upstream for three miles
• Battle Creek, a 200-foot deep canyon on the right bank Owyhee River with vertical walls one eighth mile apart which extends from the confluence at N42˚14’ W116˚32’ upstream for 23.4 miles to Lower Battle Creek Crossing at N42˚23’ W116˚22’; all 23.4 miles are a Wild River
• Freshwater Draw (N42˚18’ W116˚29’) on Battle Creek right bank
• Battle Creek Lakes (N42˚16’ W116˚25’) on Battle Creek left bank
• Kelly Park (N42˚18’ W116˚28’) on Battle Creek right bank
• The Tules (N42˚13’ W116˚30’) on Owyhee River left bank
• Windy Point (N42˚11’ W116˚30’) on Owyhee River right bank
• Juniper Creek/Hole Up Canyon (N42˚8’ W116˚27’) on Owyhee River left bank
• Jarvis Pasture (N42˚10’ W116˚27’) on Owyhee River right bank
• Juniper Basin (N42˚8’ W116˚26’) on Owyhee River left bank
• Hold Up Canyon (N42˚9’ W116˚24’) on Owyhee River right bank

The 43,000-acre North Fork Owyhee Wilderness (32), BLM, Idaho, is characterized by river canyons more than 1,000 feet below sagebrush and grassland plateaus.  Located three miles east of the state line on the North Fork, the wilderness includes lower Juniper Creek (N42˚36’ W116˚57’), Cabin Creek (N42˚37’ W116˚55’), lower Pleasant Valley Creek and Pleasant Valley Table (N42˚35’ W116˚51’), Noon Creek (N42˚37’ W116˚52’), Current Creek (N42˚38’ W116˚46’), and upper Nip and Tuck Creek (N42˚39’ W116˚43’).

Pole Creek Wilderness (33), BLM, Idaho, is also characterized by river canyons more than 1,000 feet deep; the wilderness is 12,000 acres.  Features are Avery Table (N42˚34’ W116˚37’), Bullhead Basin (N42˚35’ W116˚37’), Camel Falls (N42˚33’ W116˚37’), Wagon Box Basin (N42˚31’ W116˚34’), Camas Creek (N42˚32’ W116˚33’), and Henley Basin (N42˚32’ W116˚35’).

There is one National Wildlife Refuge in the Treasure Valley.  Deer Flat NWR (13), Idaho-Oregon, includes two distinct habitats.  Part of the refuge in the Treasure Valley surrounds 9,000-acre Lake Lowell (N43˚34’ W116˚42’) and is a waterfowl-shorebird refuge. Another portion includes 101 river islands  that make up 800 acres along a 100-mile reach of the Snake River between the Snake River Birds of Prey NCA (Rail Island N43˚18’ W116˚31’) and Farewell Bend State Recreation Area (Whitehill Island, Idaho N44˚17’ W117˚12’. The islands are waterfowl nesting areas. Most of the islands are between Celebration County Park (N43˚18’ W116˚31’) and Riverside, Idaho (N43˚28’ W116˚46’). Other island concentrations are between Adrian (N43˚43’ W117˚5’) and the Owyhee River confluence (N43˚46’ W117˚2’), Apple Valley (N43˚50’ W117˚1’), Nyssa (N43˚52’ W116˚59’), Payette (N44˚7’ W116˚55’), Weiser (N44˚12’ W116˚58’ and N44˚15’ W117˚9’). The two most downstream islands, Whitehill N44˚17’ W117˚12’ and Fenzl N44˚16’ W117˚10’, are submerged by Brownlee Reservoir. The Lake Lowell portion is noted for concentrations of mallards and Canada geese and is an IBA for shorebirds and waterfowl. The river islands portion is an IBA for colonial waterbirds, waterfowl, and breeding ducks, geese, and shorebirds.

Notable other federal sites in the Treasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau include two long distance trails and an experimental watershed. Sites are are listed below.

Idaho Centennial Trail, Idaho, is a state-sponsored trail extending across mostly federal land from Nevada to Canada. In the Snake-Columbia shrub-steppe, the trail starts at Murphy Hot Springs on the East Fork Jarbridge River at the Nevada State Line (N42˚0’ W115˚19’), continues in the plateau above the Bruneau River, crosses the East Fork Bruneau at Winter Camp (N42˚33’ W115˚31’), passes a canyon lookout at N42˚42’ W115˚40’, crosses the Saylor Creek Range of Mountain Home Air Force Base, crosses the Snake River Birds of Prey area east of Bruneau, crosses the Snake River near Hammett (N42˚56’ W115˚32’), crosses the the Mount Bennett Hills (N43˚13’ W115˚19’), enters the Boise National Forest south of US Route 20, crosses US 20 at Packer Butte (N43˚17’ W115˚20’), and follows the Boise-Sawtooth National Forest boundary north into the Idaho Batholith.

Oregon Desert Trail, Oregon, is a 750-mile-long trail sponsored by the Oregon Natural Desert Association. It traverses mostly federal lands from Bend to Owyhee Reservoir. In the Owyhee Plateau area, the trail extends from US 95 at Blue Mountain Pass (N42˚19’ W117˚49’) east to the West Little Owyhee River, then follows the Owyhee River north to Lake Owyhee State Park (N43˚37’ W117˚14’).

Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed (34), Northwest Watershed Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, Idaho (N43˚9’ W116˚46’) is in the Owyhee Mountains. This facility conducts long-term research in hydrology, water supply, seasonal snow, and landscape-scale processes related to fire and invasive weeds.

Cow Lakes (35), BLM, Oregon (N43˚6’ W117˚20’), are two lakes formed when the Jordan Crater lava flow blocked a stream. The lakes are an IBA for shorebirds and waterfowl.

Croy Creek Recreation Area (36), BLM, Idaho (N43˚29’ W114˚23’) is a mountain biking and hiking area west of Hailey. There are 20 miles of trails.

Gooding City of Rocks, BLM, Idaho (N43˚8’ W114˚46’) and Little City of Rocks, BLM, Idaho (N43˚7’ W114˚42’) are strange rock formations in the Mount Bennett Hills, on the north edge of the Snake River Plain off of State Route 46.

Jordan Crater (35), BLM, Oregon (N43˚8’ W117˚22’), is a 4,000-year-old caldera to the north of Upper Cow Lake. There are lava tubes, cones, domes, and cracks in the earth.

Jump Creek Canyon (36), BLM, Idaho (N43˚29’ W116˚56’), is a series of waterfalls in the Owyhee uplands south of Homedale.

Pillars of Rome (37), BLM, Oregon (N42˚51’ W117˚41’), are 100-foot-high cliffs overlooking the Owyhee River and stretching for five miles north of US Route 95 northeast of Burns Junction.

Silver City (38), BLM, Idaho (N43˚1’ W116˚44’), located in the Owyhee Uplands, is a partially restored 19^th century mining town. In 1865, there were 250 mines extracting gold and silver from the area. Today there is a re-opened 1863 hotel and a BLM campground.

Notable state and local sites in the Treasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau area include the tallest sand dune in North America, important bird areas, and unusual geological formations, along with reservoir recreation areas.  Three Island Crossing State Park, Idaho (N42˚56’ W115˚20’), is described under Oregon National Historic Trail.

Balanced Rock County Park (39), Twin Falls County, Idaho ( N42˚32’ W114˚-57’), in the canyon of the Salmon Falls Creek west of Castleford, preserves a 48-foot-tall rock formation which balances on a pedestal three feet in width.

Boise Greenbelt (11), Idaho, is a 25-mile-long paved path along the Boise River from Garden City (N43˚38’ W116˚14’) upstream to Lucky Peak Dam (N43˚32’ W116˚4’).  It is an IBA for bald eagle, waterfowl, gull, and osprey.

Fort Boise Wildlife Management Area (23), Idaho ( N43˚49’ W117˚1’), is west of Parma at the confluence of the Boise, Owyhee, and Snake Rivers. Cottonwoods, willows and marsh provide habitat for snow geese and nesting teal and contains a cormorant rookery. Fort Boise is a site on the Oregon National Historic Trail. The site is an IBA for nesting waterfowl and shorebirds.

Boise River Wildlife Management Area (11), Idaho (N43˚34’ W116˚1’), is to the north and east of Lucky Peak Reservoir. This extensive area includes Lucky Peak, the Boise Front, Spring Shores, and Charcoal Creek watershed. It is a wintering area for mule deer, elk, and pronghorn. The area is also known for raptors.

Bruneau Dunes State Park (24), Idaho (N42˚54’ W115˚42’), protects a 470-foot- high dune, the tallest single-structured sand dune in North America. It is within the Snake River Birds of Prey NCA. A six-mile hiking trail and a separate equestrian trail encircle the dunes. The park also has an astronomical observatory.

Camas Prairie Centennial Marsh Wildlife Management Area, Idaho( N43˚16’ W115˚0’) is between Hill City and Fairfield and south of US 20. This area is noted for Camas lily (blue flowers). The marsh is an IBA, attracting waterfowl and shorebirds in the spring before it dries up in mid-July.

Celebration Park, Canyon County, Idaho (N43˚18’ W116˚31’), is a 700-acre county park noted for petroglyphs. A historic railroad bridge is maintained for pedestrian access to the south side of the river and hiking trails. The park is located on Can-Ada Road south from Melba to Victory Lane; proceed to the north bank of the Snake River.

Eagle Island State Park, Idaho (N43˚41’ W116˚24’) is three miles west of Eagle, Idaho, on an island in the Boise River and offers hiking and river recreation opportunities. A nearby blue heron rookery is an IBA.

Farewell Bend State Recreation Area (25), Oregon (N44˚18’ W117˚14’) is on Brownlee Reservoir at Exit 353 off I-84.  It is also an Oregon Trail site, with wagon ruts nearby.

Lucky Peak State Park (10), Idaho, is a three-unit reservoir recreation area is located on the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers’Lucky Peak Reservoir.  The Discovery and Sandy Point units (N43˚32’ W116˚4’) are downstream from the dam while the Spring Shores unit (N43˚36’ W115˚59’)  is on the upper end of the reservoir.

Lake Owyhee State Park (14), Oregon (N43˚37’ W117˚14’) is on the Bureau of Reclamation’s Owyhee Reservoir. Colorful volcanic rocks are a highlight of the site on a 53-mile-long lake.

Montour Wildlife Management Area (20), Idaho (N43˚56’ W116˚19’) is on the Payette River at the upper end of Black Canyon Reservoir. The Montour Valley is surrounded by mountains and is an area for waterfowl and upland game birds.

Ontario State Recreation Site (40), Oregon (N44˚3’ W116˚58’), is on the west bank of the Snake River at I-84 exit 374. This site on Route 201 provides birdwatching opportunities along the river.

Payette River Wildlife Management Area (1), Idaho (N 44˚0’ W116˚48’), is northeast of New Plymouth on the Payette River. It is a nesting area for hundreds of geese and ducks.

C.J. Strike Reservoir Wildlife Management Area, Idaho ( N42˚57’ W115˚59’) is owned by Idaho Power Company and managed as a state wildlife area. It is an IBA for attracting 100,000 waterfowl of 250 species, including passerines, curlew, owls, and pelicans. It is surrounded by Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey NCA.

Succor Creek State Natural Area (41), Oregon (N43˚29’ W117˚8’), is a deep rocky canyon on the Idaho border. See description of Succor Creek flora in the introductory paragraphs.

Notable private sites in the Treasure Valley-Owyhee Plateau are Malheur Cave and Silver Creek Preserve. Malheur Cave (42), Robert Burns Masonic Lodge 97, Oregon (N43˚13’ W118˚20’) is a privately owned lava tube 3,000 feet long with an underground lake in the lower end. It is near the South Fork Malheur River and is used for outdoor meetings of the masons.  Silver Creek Preserve (43), The Nature Conservancy, Idaho ( N 43˚19’ W114˚9’) is an IBA west of Picabo in the Camas Prairie on US 20. It is a wetland area for trumpeter swan, waterfowl, wading birds, and warblers. Silver Creek is noted for fly fishing.

References

Graham, Alan.  2011. A Natural History of the New World: The Ecology and Evolution of Plants in the Americas. University of Chicago Press.

Sullivan, John. 2005. Resource Management Planning Efforts on the Bureau of Land Management’s Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area, pages 1184-1185 IN Ralph, C. John, and Rich, Terrell D., editors. Bird Conservation Implementation and Integration in the Americas: Proceedings of the Third International Partners in Flight Conference, March 20-24, 2002, Asilomar, California, Volume 2.  Albany, CA: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station.  USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-191.  http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr191/